Biomechanical adaptation of ulnar cross-sectional morphology in brachiating primates

The forelimbs of hylobatids (gibbons and siamang) are distinctive among tetrapods in that they are loaded in overall tension during normal locomotion. While hylobatid ulnae must also encounter bending stresses in the course of their full range of locomotor behavior, their loading regime differs from that of quadrupedal anthropoids in that these bending stresses are distributed evenly along the bone, are not exerted in a preferred plane, and are probably of generally lower magnitude. This study examines the degree to which hylobatid ulnae are adapted to this suspensory loading regime. We obtained cross-sections of ulnae at various increments along the length of the bone using CAT scans. The sample comprises 476 cross-sections representing the ulnae of 25 individuals from five species of comparable body size. We show that in gibbons and siamang, the patterning of ulnar cross-sectional area and resistance to bending in the dorsoventral plane along the ulnar diaphysis differ from that of similarly sized quadrupedal anthropoids in the manner predicted by a suspensory loading regime. We also find the same pattern for the ulnae of Ateles, whose loading regime may be fairly similar to that of hylobatids. However, we find that the cross-sectional shape of the ulnar diaphysis in hylobatids and Ateles does not differ from that of quadrupedal monkeys in the manner predicted by a suspensory loading regime. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Implications of Molecular and Morphological Data for Understanding Ateline Phylogeny

The ateline monkeys constitute as certain a monophyletic group as there is among primates. The group is intriguing because while their adaptations are well-documented and their monophyly as a group is unquestioned, their phylogenetic interrelationships are controversial. Molecular data indicate a phylogeny at odds with their morphology. Traditional morphological comparisons isolate Alouatta from the atelins, and link Ateles and Brachyteles as a sister group to the exclusion of Lagothrix. In contrast, several recent molecular studies point to a closer relationship between Brachyteles and Lagothrix than between Brachyteles and Ateles. At the heart of the problem lie the assumptions we make about the validity of data and the homology of observed traits. The fossil record further confounds the issue. We must account for the fossil record because it is positive evidence. But we cannot control how much of it there is or how much of it ever will be known. At this point in time, the ateline molecular and fossil record provoke us to examine critically our morphological approach to phylogenetic modeling.     

Reproductive seasonality in two sympatric primates (Ateles belzebuth and Lagothrix lagotricha poeppigii) from Amazonian Ecuador

With their large body size and “slow” life histories, atelin primates are thought to follow a risk‐averse breeding strategy, similar to capital breeders, in which they accumulate energy reserves in anticipation of future reproductive events such as gestation and lactation. However, given the paucity of longitudinal data from wild populations, few studies to date have been able to compare the timing of reproductive events (e.g., copulations, conceptions, and births) in relation to shifting resource availability over multiple years. We examined the reproductive patterns of two atelin species—white‐bellied spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth) and lowland woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha poeppigii)—in relation to habitat‐wide estimates of fruit availability at the Tiputini Biodiversity Station (TBS) in Amazonian Ecuador. Our sample included 4 years of data on births (N = 36) and copulations (N = 170) for Lagothrix, 10 years of data on births (N = 35) and copulations (N = 74) for Ateles, and 7 years of data on ripe fruit availability. Reproductive events were distinctly seasonal. For both species, births were concentrated between May and September, a time period in which ripe fruit was relatively scarce, while inferred conceptions occurred between September and January, when ripe fruit availability was increasing and maintained at high‐levels throughout the forest. Interannual variation in births was relatively stable, except for in 2016 when twice as many infants were born following a strong El Niño event that may have led to unusually high levels of fruit productivity during the 2015 breeding season. Although copulations were observed year‐round, an overwhelming majority (>90% for Lagothrix and >80% for Ateles) took place between August and February when females were most likely to conceive. Collectively, these data follow the reproductive patterns observed in other atelin primates, and, as proposed by others, suggest that atelins may follow a risk‐averse breeding strategy.     

The problems of the Pliopithecidae as a hylobatid ancestor

Various members of the Pliopithecidae (Pliopithecus, Laccopithecus) and the Proconsulidae (Micropithecus, Dendropithecus, Limnoputhecus, Dionysopithecus, and Platdontopithecus) have been proposed as the ancestral hylobatid (gibbon), based largely on small size and simple-cusped, ape-like molars. However, this ignores evidence presented in early anatomical studies of living brachiating primates. All apes and several South American monkeys show structural anatomical adaptations for brachiation. The Pliopithecidae show some ceboid-like features in the hindlimb which suggest that this genus may have been partly suspensory and possibly comparable to spider monkeys, but without a prehensile tail. They were basically arboreal quadrupedal monkeys without any of the brachiator specializations. Large bodied apes add more traits in order to handle great weight. Among the small-bodied brachiators, only the hylobatids possess these large-brachiator traits. Such modifications serve no purpose other than to support a weight greater than 30 kg. The hylobatid gestation time and longevity are also characteristic only of much larger animals. The ancestral gibbon must have been among the large-bodied sivapithecines. This relationship is supported by body size, geography, and biochemical timing (pliopithecids were probably a distinct lineage in the late Oligocene). If a memeber of the Pliopithecidae were the ancestor of extant hylobatids, it would have had to have grown large, became adapted to brachiation, and then grown small again.Laccopithecus has been newly proposed as the ancestral gibbon. If it is not a member of the pliopithecids, with an age of less than 8 mya, then it could be a fossil hylobatid. It would have had to have separated from the Asian great ape line approximately 15 mya, developed full brachiation, and undergone a reduction in body size and dental sexual dimorphism.     

Mechanical energy oscillations of two brachiation gaits: measurement and simulation

How do arm‐swinging apes locomote effectively over a variety of speeds? One way to reduce the metabolic energy cost of locomotion is to transfer energy between reversible mechanical modes. In terrestrial animals, at least two transfer mechanisms have been identified: 1) a pendulum‐like mechanism for walking, with exchange between gravitational potential energy and translational kinetic energy, and 2) a spring‐like mechanism for running, where the elastic strain energy of stretched muscle and tendon is largely returned to reaccelerate the animal. At slower speeds, a brachiator will always have at least one limb in contact with the support, similar to the overlap of foot contact in bipedal walking. At faster speeds, brachiators exhibit an aerial phase, similar to that seen in bipedal running. Are there two distinct brachiation gaits even though the animal appears to simply swing beneath its overhead support? If so, are different exchange mechanisms employed? Our kinetic analysis of brachiation in a white‐handed gibbon (Hylobates lar) indicates that brachiation is indeed comprised of two mechanically distinct gaits. At slower speeds in “continuous contact” brachiation, the gibbon utilizes a simple pendulum‐like transfer of mechanical energy within each stride. At faster speeds in “ricochetal” brachiation, translational and rotational kinetic energy are exchanged in a novel “whip‐like” transfer. We propose that brachiators utilize the transfer between translational and rotational kinetic energy to control the dynamics of their swing. This maneuver may allow muscle action at the shoulder to control the transfer and adjust the ballistic portion of the step to meet the requirements for the next hand contact. Am J Phys Anthropol 115:319–326, 2001. © 2001 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Differential effects of forest degradation on primate populations

A population survey of nonhuman primates in an area of northern Colombia was conducted using repeated systematic census techniques as well as exploratory transects. Both remnant forest patches and more extensive forests were examined for comparison. WhereasLagothrix andAteles were most numerous in extensive forests,Lagothrix was virtually absent in remnant forests.Cebus, Alouatta andSaguinus persist in remnant forests, and the last may even find second growth a favorable habitat. These results are in good agreement with independent studies in a second area in the South.     

In vivo baseline measurements of hip joint range of motion in suspensory and nonsuspensory anthropoids

Hominoids and atelines are known to use suspensory behaviors and are assumed to possess greater hip joint mobility than nonsuspensory monkeys, particularly for range of abduction. This assumption has greatly influenced how extant and fossil primate hip joint morphology has been interpreted, despite the fact that there are no data available on hip mobility in hominoids or Ateles. This study uses in vivo measurements to test the hypothesis that suspensory anthropoids have significantly greater ranges of hip joint mobility than nonsuspensory anthropoids. Passive hip joint mobility was measured on a large sample of anesthetized captive anthropoids (nonhuman hominids = 43, hylobatids = 6, cercopithecids = 43, Ateles = 6, and Cebus = 6). Angular and linear data were collected using goniometers and tape measures. Range of motion (ROM) data were analyzed for significant differences by locomotor group using ANOVA and phylogenetic regression. The data demonstrate that suspensory anthropoids are capable of significantly greater hip abduction and external rotation. Degree of flexion and internal rotation were not larger in the suspensory primates, indicating that suspension is not associated with a global increase in hip mobility. Future work should consider the role of external rotation in abduction ability, how the physical position of the distal limb segments are influenced by differences in ROM proximally, as well as focus on bony and soft tissue differences that enable or restrict abduction and external rotation at the anthropoid hip joint. Am J Phys Anthropol 153:417–434, 2014. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Serum chemistry concentrations of captive woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha)

Woolly monkeys (Lagothrix sp.) are threatened species and numerous zoos have failed to sustain successful populations. The most common causes of death in captive woolly monkeys are related to pregnancy and hypertension. The objective of this retrospective study was to evaluate serum concentrations of a large number of captive woolly monkeys to establish baseline means and compare these concentrations with their closest related species to determine potential abnormalities. Serum analyses from 30 woolly monkeys housed at two institutions (Apenheul, The Netherlands and The Louisville Zoo, KY, USA) over 12 yr were collected. The statistical model included gender, age group (young, 0–4 yr of age; middle, 5–9 yr; and old, 10+ yr), and zoological institution. All panel result means were similar to previously reported concentrations for howler (Alouatta sp.) and spider monkeys (Ateles sp.) with the possible exception of alanine aminotransferase and γ‐glutamyl‐transferase being higher, whereas creatinine and phosphorus were lower. The serum glucose mean of 6.7 mmol/L is above the baseline range for humans and spider monkeys. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine aminotransferase, and sodium (Na) were higher in females and magnesium (Mg) was higher in males (P<0.05). ALP, Mg, and phosphorus were highest (P<0.05) and calcium and sodium tended to be highest (P<0.10) in the oldest animals. Ferritin tended to be highest (P<0.10) in the oldest animals. Albumin, ALP, chloride, Na, and total bilirubin were higher for Zoo A, whereas γ‐glutamyl‐transferase, glucose, and lactate dehydrogenase were lower for Zoo A (P<0.05). Areas of potential woolly monkey health risk were noted and discussed. Future studies are needed to determine free‐ranging serum concentrations to elucidate parameters that contain aberrant concentrations and decrease health status. Zoo Biol 27:188–199, 2008. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Positional Behavior of Black Spider Monkeys (Ateles paniscus) in French Guiana

Spider monkeys (Ateles) frequently use suspensory locomotion and postures, and their postcranial morphology suggests convergence with extant hominoids in canopy and food utilization. Previous studies of positional behavior in Ateles, have produced variable rates in the use of different positional activities. I investigated the positional behavior of black spider monkeys (Ateles paniscus) in a wet rain forest in French Guiana, and assessed differences in the rates of use of positional modes across studies. I also discuss the significance of suspensory activities in forest utilization. In French Guiana, Ateles confined travel and feeding locomotion on small and medium-sized moderately inclined supports in the main canopy. Tail-arm brachiation and clamber were their main traveling modes, while clamber was the dominant feeding locomotor mode. Small horizontal supports were predominant during their feeding. Suspensory postures accounted for more than half of feeding bouts, with tail-hang and tail-hind limb(s) hang being the dominant postures. Feeding occurred largely in tree crown peripheries with the prehensile tail anchored frequently above the monkey. They usually collected food items below or at the same level as the body. There is no difference among the postures they used to acquire and eat young leaves and fruit. My results agree with reports on the positional behavior of different species of spider monkeys at other sites. Despite the use of different methods, the same species exhibited more or less similar profiles in similar forests. Interspecific differences could be associated with morphological differences. Moreover, intraspecific differences could be attributed to forest structure. The findings suggest that the major part of biological information is independent of methods used in the several studies. Suspensory behavior facilitates the exploitation of the forest canopy by shortening traveling pathways between and within trees, by enabling faster travel for the better exploitation of patchy food sources and by providing access to food in the flexible terminal twigs.     

Tube task hand preference in captive hylobatids

The link between laterality in humans and other primates is still hotly debated. Hylobatids have been rather neglected in this research area, yet they can provide important insights because: (1) they share with humans a complex vocal repertoire, which in humans is thought to be associated with brain hemispheric specialization and lateralized behaviors; (2) their adaptation to arboreality has produced unique postural constraints; (3) the little that is known about laterality in gibbons is contradictory (captive studies have provided conflicting results, while a field study on siamangs reported a population-level left-hand preference). To clarify this, we investigated hand preference in captive hylobatids [n = 42; 22 siamangs (Symphalangus syndactylus) and 20 gibbons (Hylobates sp., Nomascus leucogenys)] in nine Japanese facilities. We had a large sample size, controlled for possible confounds (posture, enclosure limitations) and used a well-established testing protocol (tube task). Handedness indices calculated from raw frequencies and bouts were highly correlated and showed a significant left-hand skew, which is consistent with data from wild siamangs. Major differences between captive and wild siamangs were a larger number of ambiguously handed individuals, and no significant age-related variation in captivity. The use of the index finger elicited a much more strongly lateralized response than the thumb. These results confirmed a left-hand preference in siamangs, but were equivocal in other hylobatids, and suggest selective pressures that may have acted on the highly arboreal hylobatids to favor handedness. Our study also indicates factors that might explain the discrepancy in the literature between handedness studies on captive and wild primate populations.     

Role of the prehensile tail during ateline locomotion: experimental and osteological evidence

The dynamic role of the prehensile tail of atelines during locomotion is poorly understood. While some have viewed the tail of Ateles simply as a safety mechanism, others have suggested that the prehensile tail plays an active role by adjusting pendulum length or controlling lateral sway during bimanual suspensory locomotion. This study examines the bony and muscular anatomy of the prehensile tail as well as the kinematics of tail use during tail-assisted brachiation in two primates, Ateles and Lagothrix. These two platyrrhines differ in anatomy and in the frequency and kinematics of suspensory locomotion. Lagothrix is stockier, has shorter forelimbs, and spends more time traveling quadrupedally and less time using bimanual suspensory locomotion than does Ateles. In addition, previous studies showed that Ateles exhibits greater hyperextension of the tail, uses its tail to grip only on alternate handholds, and has a larger abductor caudae medialis muscle compared to Lagothrix. In order to investigate the relationship between anatomy and behavior concerning the prehensile tail, osteological data and kinematic data were collected for Ateles fusciceps and Lagothrix lagothricha. The results demonstrate that Ateles has more numerous and smaller caudal elements, particularly in the proximal tail region. In addition, transverse processes are relatively wider, and sacro-caudal articulation is more acute in Ateles compared to Lagothrix. These differences reflect the larger abductor muscle mass and greater hyperextension in Ateles. In addition, Ateles shows fewer side-to-side movements during tail-assisted brachiation than does Lagothrix. These data support the notion that the prehensile tail represents a critical dynamic element in the tail-assisted brachiation of Ateles, and may be useful in developing inferences concerning behavior in fossil primates.     

Multiple measures of laterality in Garnett's bushbaby (Otolemur garnettii)

Behavioral laterality, a common measure of hemispheric specialization of the brain, has been examined in multiple tasks across several species of prosimian primates; however, there is inconsistency among findings between and within species that leaves many questions about laterality unanswered. Most studies have employed few measures of laterality, most commonly handedness. This study examined multiple measures of laterality within subjects in 17 captive‐born Garnett's bushbabies (Otolemur garnettii) to assess the consistency of lateralized behaviors and to examine possible influences such as age, posture, novelty, and arousal to elucidate the relations between direction and strength of laterality. We measured reaching, turning bias, scent marking, tail wrapping, leading foot, side‐of‐mouth preference, and hand use in prey capture. Because autonomic arousal has been invoked as a determinant of strength of lateralization, we included multiple tasks that would allow us to test this hypothesis. All subjects were significantly lateralized on simple reaching tasks (P<0.01) and tail wrapping (P<0.01). Moreover, the number of animals lateralized on turning (P<0.01), leading limb (P<0.05), mouth use (P<0.01), and prey capture (P<0.01) was greater than would be expected by chance alone. There was consistency in the strength and direction of hand biases across different postures. Tasks requiring hand use were more strongly lateralized than tasks not involving hand use (P<0.001). The data do not support the assumption that arousal (as subjectively categorized) or novelty strengthens lateralized responding. The results of this study are discussed in terms of the effects of arousal, posture, and age on lateralized behavior. Am. J. Primatol. 72:206–216, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Biogeographic and Ecological Forces Responsible for Speciation in Ateles

We used the results of phylogenetic analyses of relationships among spider monkeys (Ateles) based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA to investigate questions of their evolutionary origins and speciation mechanisms. We employed the concept of a local molecular clock to date nodes of interest (corresponding to hypothesized species and subspecies) in the various phylograms for comparison to hypothesized biogeographical events that might have affected speciation. We considered various mechanisms—Pleistocene refuge formation, riverine barriers, geological fluctuations, and ecological changes associated with these mechanisms—for their contribution to speciation in Ateles. Most speciation among the various species of Ateles occurred during the middle to late Pliocene, suggesting that Pleistocene refuge formation was not a key speciation mechanism. However, it is likely that the genetic structure of populations of Ateles was modified to some extent by refuge formation. Additionally, riverine barriers do not seem to interrupt gene flow significantly among Ateles. No river formed a barrier among species of Ateles, with the exception of the lower Amazon and possibly some of the black-water rivers draining the Guianan highlands. Large-scale geographic changes associated with the continued rise of the eastern and western cordilleras of the northern Andes and associated changes in habitat were the most important causes of speciation in Ateles. The various factors that modify genetic structure in Ateles are important to consider in order to protect endangered primate genera in the Neotropics.     

The locomotor and postural repertoires of Ateles geoffroyi and Colobus guereza,and a reevaluation of the locomotor category semibrachiation

The locomotor repertoire of Ateles geoffroyi includes quadrupedal walking and running, climbing, brachiation and arm-swinging, bipedalism, and leaping. Its postural repertoire is characterized by below branch suspensory activities. In contrast, the locomotor repertoire of Colobus guereza consists primarily of quadrupedal galloping and bounding, and leaping. It does not brachiate or walk bipedally and rarely performs arm-swinging. The Colobus guereza postural repertoire is characterized by above branch sitting postures. Ateles geoffroyi is a highly mobile primate, whereas Colobus guereza is essentially sedentary. In the past, there has been a tendency to group Ateles and Colobus in a single locomotor category, semibrachiation. Comparison of the very different repertoires of these two species points out some of the shortcomings of the category semibrachiation. First, no locomotor pattern or group of patterns has been described as semibrachiation (i.e., no animals semibrachiate). Secondly, the locomotor diversity of animals included in the category is so much greater than the similarities that the category obscures more than it conveys. The usefulness of retaining this category is therefore questioned.     

Potential Effects of Ateline Extinction and Forest Fragmentation on Plant Diversity and Composition in the Western Orinoco Basin,Colombia

Cattle and agricultural farming in the western Orinoco Basin began in 1555, and since then fragmentation of continuous forest has occurred. We evaluated the effects of the disturbances and the absence of large primates on plant community composition, diversity, and regeneration patterns. Atelines (Lagothrix and Ateles) inhabited the lowlands close to the Andean mountains, but no longer live in fragmented habitats. Their absence may have negative effects on plant populations because atelines play important roles as seed dispersers in neotropical forests, especially for large-seeded plants, which are rarely swallowed by other seed dispersers. We compared 2 1-ha vegetation plots in forest fragments north of the La Macarena Mountains with 7 plots in continuous forest in Tinigua National Park. Both sites share the same climatic conditions and have similar geological origins. There is floristic affinity between forests with similar ecological characteristics; the fragmented forests are also less diverse than the continuous forests. As predicted, the forest fragments have fewer individuals with large seeds. The results suggest that forest fragmentation and local ateline extinctions affect plant communities, reducing diversity and affecting large-seeded plants.     

Vergleichende untersuchungen über die skelettmorphologie des greifschwanzes südamerikanischer affen (Platyrrhina)

Zusammenfassung Die beiden Unterfamilien der platyrrhinen Affen, Atelinae und Alouattinae, haben am ventralen Schwanzende eine der Handinnenfläche vergleichbare Tastflache: ihr Schwanz entspricht einer fünften Extremitat. Über eine vergleichend funktionell-morphologische Untersuchung des Affengreifschwanzes wird berichtet.Die Skelette von 10 Ateles, 4 Brachyteles, 7 Lagothrix, 22 Alouatta, 19 Cebus, 15 Saimiri, 10 Callicebus, 21 Callithrix, 6 Aotes und als altweltliche Vergleichsgattungen 4 Cercopithecus und 10 Macaca irus wurden untersucht, um die skelettmorphologischen Differenzierungen herauszuarbeiten, die den Greifschwanz mit Tastflache kennzeichnen. Lebendbeobachtungen von Ateles, Lagothrix und Alouatta werden mitgeteilt : die Atelinae zeichnen sick durch höhere Vielfalt in der Anwendung ihres Schwanzes gegentiber den Alouattinae aus.Der Unterschied im Gebrauch des Schwanzes bei Affen mit verschiedenen Schwanzformen: Greifschwanz mit Tastflache, Greifschwanz und Schlaffschwanz ist groß.Die Lumbal-, Sacral- und Caudalregion der Gattungen Brachyteles, Ateles, Lagothrix, Alouatta, Cebus, Saimiri, Callicebus und Macaca irus werden beschrieben. Die Differenzierungen der Lumbal-, Sacral- und Caudalskelette bei den unterschiedenen Schwanzformen Bind geringer, als nach der funktionellen Vielfältigkeit zu erwarten war.Die Lumbal- und Sacralregion spielen offenbar bei der Entwicklung des Schwanzes zur Extremitat eine untergeordnete Rolle. Jedoch Bind die Foramina intervertebralia der Lumbal-, die Foramina intersacralia der Sacralregion und das Lumen des Neuralkanales beider Regionen bei Atelinae und Alouattinae größer als bei den anderen Affen. Innerhalb des Caudalskelettes werden zwei Regionen unterschieden : die erste Caudalregion (Caudalwirbel mit Neuralkanal) und die zweite Caudalregion( Caudalwirbel ohne Neuralkanal). Die erste Caudalregion ist für die Entwicklung des Schwanzes zur Extremitat von hoher Bedeutung. Allein innerhalb dieser Region wird der Schwanz nach dorsal gebeugt.Ist sie lang und kräftig ausgebildet, so reicht der Neuralkanal und damit das Rückenmark weit in den Schwanz hinein. Atelinae und Alouattinae zeichnen sich durch ihre sehr lange und hock differenzierte erste Caudalregion aus. Intensive Nervenversorgung des Schwanzes und starke Beugefähigkeit nach dorsal sind von der Länge des Neuralkanales innerhalb des Schwanzes und der Ausbildung seiner Apophysen — sie dienen als Muskelansatz — abhängig. Auch die Wirbel der zweiten Caudalregion sind bei Atelinae und Alouattinae, besonders im distalen Bereich, anders ausgebildet als bei den anderen Affenschwänzen. Die Wirbel sind dorsoventral abgeplattet und sehr kurz. Der Greifschwanz mit Tastflache wind als eine Parallelentwicklung bei zweiverschiedenen Stämmen, Atelinae und Alouattinae, angesehen. Die Atelinae haben die höchste uns bekannte Entwicklungsstufe des Affengreifschwanzes erlangt. Die Alouattinae bleiben ihnen gegenüber nach Schwanzfunktion und Morphologie primitiv. Innerhalb der Atelinae haben Brachyteles und Ateles eine höhere Entwicklungsstufe erreicht als Lagothrix, der morphologisch, nicht aber funktionell, in manehen Dingen Alouatta ähnlicher ist als den erstgenannten.Der Schwanz von Cebus wird nach Skelettbau und Verhalten zwischen Greifschwanzaffen mit Tastflache und Schlaffsehwanzaffen gestellt. Der Schwanz von Cebus kann als primitive- Vorstufe des hochdifferenzierten Greifschwanzes der Atelinae und Alouattinae angesehen werden. Das Caudalskelett von Cebus ist dem der Schlaffsehwanzaffen weit ähnlicher als dem der Greifschwanzaffen mit Tastflache an der Schwanzspitze.Die Entwicklung dea Affenschwanzes zur Extremität trio nur bei den größten und am höchsten entwickelten südamerikanischen Affen auf.Herrn Prof. Dr. Helmut Hofer zum 50. Geburtstag gewidmet.Durchgeführt mit Unterstützung der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft.     

Positional behavior in the Hominoidea

Quantitative studies on the positional behavior of members of the Hominoidea are compared in order (1) to identify consistencies across the superfamily, (2) to contrast ape positional behavior with that of Old World monkeys (forest-livingPapio anubis were chosen for study to reduce body size effects), and (3) to identify distinctive behaviors in each of the ape taxa. Differences in the way behaviors were sampled in the various studies necessitated considering posture and locomotion separately. Unimanual arm-hanging and vertical climbing were the most distinctive shared postural and locomotor modes among the apes (the gorilla excepted), constituting ≥5.0% and ≥4.9% of all behavior in each species. Arm-hanging and brachiation (sensu stricto) frequencies were the highest by far in hylobatids. Hand-foot hanging, bipedal posture, and clambering, an orthograde suspensory locomotion assisted by the hindlimbs, were more common in orangutans than in any other hominoid. Sitting and walking were observed in the highest frequencies in the African apes but were no more common than in the baboon. Relatively high frequencies of brachiation (sensu stricto) were reported for all apes except chimpanzees and gorillas. Brachiation and arm-hanging were kinematically different in apes and baboons, involving complete humeral abduction only in the former, whereas vertical climbing appeared to be kinematically similar in apes and baboons. It is concluded that the morphological specializations of the apes may be adaptations to (1) the unique physical demands of arm-hanging and (2) less kinematically distinct, but still quantitatively significant, frequencies of vertical climbing.     

Sexual size dimorphism and assortative mating for morphological traits in Passer domesticus

In this study, assortative mating for different morphological traits was studied in a captive population of house sparrows (Passer domesticus). Males were larger than females. Assortative mating was found for tail length, wing length and general body size. Males with larger badge size mated with females with longer tails. The strongest assortative mating occurred for tail length (r=0.77), and this assortative mating remained significant after controlling for wing length, mass and tarsus length, suggesting that it was not an artefact of assortative mating for body size. The possibility of sexual selection for tail length in the house sparrow is discussed.     

The emissary foramina: Their value in platyrrhine systematics

A discriminant analysis was performed on 226 ceboid skulls using data on emissary foramina size and shape. The purposes of the study are to 1) measure the success with which these discriminating variables can distinguish among platyrrhine genera and 2) derive a set of classification functions which will permit the classification of new cases with unknown group membership (i.e., fossil skulls). This technique is able to correctly classify 80% of the 226 ceboid skulls. Support is given to the allocation of Chiropotes, Cacajao, and Pithecia into one morphologically unified subfamily, Pitheciinae. Alouatta, Ateles, and Lagothrix also share many similarities in emissary foramina size and shape and their inclusion into one subfamily, Atelinae, is probably warranted. The distinctiveness of Cebus in these same morphological features is apparent. Possibilities for extending this procedure to study fossil lineages in platyrrhines are discussed.     

Evolution of femur and tibia in higher primates: Adaptive morphological patterns and phylogenetic diversity

Seventy six metrical traits measured on the femur and tibia of three higher primate groups —Ceboidea, Cercopithecoidea, Hominoidea have been processed by various univariate and multivariate statistical methods to survey the process of evolution of the morphology of the femur and tibia in higher primates. Intragroup and intergroup variability, similarity and differences as well as various aspects of scaling and sexual dimorphism have been analyzed to study adaptive trends and phylogenetic diversity in higher primates, in individual superfamilies and to explore the adaptive morphological pattern of early hominids and basic differences between hominids and pongids. Two basic morphotypes of the femur and tibia in higher primates have been determined. They are (1) advanced hominoid morphotype (hominids and pongids) and (2) ancestral higher primate morphotype (platyrrhine and cattarrhine monkeys, early hominoids, and hylobatids). Cebid lower limb bones are adapted to arboreal quadrupedalism with antipronograde features while femur and tibia of cercopithecid monkeys are basically adapted to the semi-arboreal locomotion. Early hominoids (Proconsul) and hylobatids are morphologically different from pongids; some features are close toAteles or other monkey species. Pongids and hominids are taken as one major morphological group with different scaling and some functional and morphological similarities. Numerous analogous features were described on the lower limb skeleton ofPan andPongo showing analogous ecological parameters in their evolution. Major morphological and biomechanical trends are analyzed. It is argued that early advanced hominoid morphology is ancestral both to the pongids and to early hominids. The progressive morphological trend in early hominids has been found fromA. afarensis with ancestral hominid morphology, toH. habilis with an elongated femur and structural features similar to advanced hominids. A detailed phylogenetic analysis of higher primate femur and tibia is also presented.