Moniliformin and the European Corn Borer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ostrinia nubilalis</Emphasis>)

A representative survey was made of maize ears of the 1988 and 1989 crop in Austria to establish the influence of corn borer injuries onFusarium species involved in ear fusariosis andFusarium toxin production.TheFusarium species most frequently isolated from rot-damaged ears wereFsacchari var. subglutinans (about 50 %) andF. graminearum (about 30 %). There was a striking difference between theFusarium species of the Liseola and the Discolor section concerning their occurrence on corn borer-damaged ears. More than 80 % of the ears infected withF. sacchari var. subglutinans andF. verticillioides, but less than 15 % of the ears infected withF. graminearum, F. crookwellense andF. culmorum showed corn borer injuries.Toxin analyses of the infected ears corresponded to the known toxigenicity of the respectiveFusarium species. Ears infected withF. sacchari var. subglutinans contained moniliformin (up to 20 mg/kg), those infected withF. verticillioides fumonisin B₁ and B₂ (up to 15 mg/kg). In ears infected withF. graminearum, F. culmorum andF. crookwellense zearalenone (up to 40 mg/kg) and deoxynivalenol (up to 500 mg/kg) or nivalenol (up to 10 mg/kg), respectively, could be detected. Hence measures to combat the European corn borer will mainly reduce moniliformin and fumonisin contamination, but will affect zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and nivalenol contents of the ears to a much lesser extent.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> diseases of maize associated with mycotoxin contamination of agricultural products intended to be used for food and feed

Infections of maize with phytopathogenic and toxinogenic Fusarium spp. may occur throughout the cultivation period. This can cause different types of diseases in vegetative and generative organs of the plant. Along with these infections, mycotoxins are often produced and accumulated in affected tissues, which could pose a significant risk on human and animal health when entering the food and feed chain. Most important fungal species infecting European maize belong to the Fusarium sections Discolour and Liseola, the first being more prevalent in cooler and humid climate regions than the second predominating in warmer and dryer areas. Coexistence of several Fusarium spp. pathogens in growing maize under field conditions is the usual case and may lead to multi-contamination with mycotoxins like trichothecenes, zearalenone and fumonisins. The pathways how the fungi gain access to the target organs of the plant are extensively described in relation to specific symptoms of typical rot diseases regarding ears, kernels, rudimentary ears, roots, stem, leaves, seed and seedlings. Both Gibberella and Fusarium ear rots are of major importance in affecting the toxinogenic quality of grain or ear-based products as well as forage maize used for human or animal nutrition. Although rudimentary ears may contain high amounts of Fusarium toxins, the contribution to the contamination of forage maize is minor due to their small proportion on the whole plant dry matter yield. The impact of foliar diseases on forage maize contamination is regarded to be low, as Fusarium infections are restricted to some parts on the leaf sheaths and husks. Mycotoxins produced in rotted basal part of the stem may contribute to forage maize contamination, but usually remain in the stubbles after harvest. As the probability of a more severe disease progression is increasing with a prolonged cultivation period, maize should be harvested at the appropriate maturity stage to keep Fusarium toxin contamination as low as possible. Ongoing surveillance and research is needed to recognise changes in the spectrum of dominating Fusarium pathogens involved in mycotoxin contamination of maize to ensure safety in the food and feed chain.     

Biocontrol of the toxigenic plant pathogen <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium culmorum</Emphasis> by soil fauna in an agroecosystem

In 2011 and 2013, a field experiment was conducted in a winter wheat field at Adenstedt (northern Germany) to investigate biocontrol and interaction effects of important members of the soil food web (Lumbricus terrestris, Annelida; Folsomia candida, Collembola and Aphelenchoides saprophilus, Nematoda) on the phytopathogenic fungus Fusarium culmorum in wheat straw. Therefore, soil fauna was introduced in mesocosms in defined numbers and combinations and exposed to either Fusarium-infected or non-infected wheat straw. L. terrestris was introduced in all faunal treatments and combined either with F. candida or A. saprophilus or both. Mesocosms filled with a Luvisol soil, a cover of different types of wheat straw and respective combinations of faunal species were established outdoors in the topsoil of a winter wheat field after harvest of the crop. After a time span of 4 and 8 weeks, the degree of wheat straw coverage of mesocosms was quantified to assess its attractiveness for the soil fauna. The content of Fusarium biomass in residual wheat straw and soil was determined using a double-antibody sandwich (DAS)-ELISA method. In both experimental years, the infected wheat straw was incorporated more efficiently into the soil than the non-infected control straw due to the presence of L. terrestris in all faunal treatments than the non-infected control straw. In addition, Fusarium biomass was reduced significantly in all treatments after 4 weeks (2011: 95–99%; 2013:15–54%), whereupon the decline of fungal biomass was higher in faunal treatments than in non-faunal treatments and differed significantly from them. In 2011, Fusarium biomass of the faunal treatments was below the quantification limit after 8 weeks. In 2013, a decline of Fusarium biomass was observed, but the highest content of Fusarium biomass was still found in the non-faunal treatments after 8 weeks. In the soil of all treatments, Fusarium biomass was below the quantification limit. The earthworm species L. terrestris revealed a considerable potential as an effective biocontrol agent contributing to a sustainable control of a Fusarium plant pathogen in wheat straw, thus reducing the infection risk for specific plant diseases in arable fields.     

Impact of growth conditions on the occurrence of<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> spp. and the mycotoxin content of wheat

In 1997–99 the occurrence ofFusarium spp. on winter wheat and the contamination with mycotoxins was investigated at three locations in the Rhineland, Germany. All cultivation methods investigated had an effect on the level ofFusarium infection, however, rainfall during flowering was the most important factor. The choice of cultivar and soil cultivation proved to be the most promising tools to reduce head scab severity and mycotoxin contamination.     

Effects of<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium-</Emphasis>toxincontaminated wheat in ruminant nutrition

An experiment was carried out to examine the effects of aFusarium-contaminated wheat grain as a component of the concentrate portion (10 mg deoxynivalenol and 0.76 mg zearalenone, ZON, per kg dry matter) on performance of growing bulls, and on carry over of ZON into tissues and body fluids. In a second study, rumen physiological parameters were investigated in wethers equipped with rumen fistulae. Moreover, the influences of a detoxifying agent (Mycofix®, MP, Biomin GmbH, Herzogenburg, Austria) were considered as an additional experimental factor beside the contamination of the wheat (uncontaminated control wheat,Fusarium-toxincontaminated wheat).The fattening experiment with bulls (n=14 per treatment) covered the live weight range between 244 kg and 460 kg. Daily dry matter intake and live weight gain (kg per animal and day) were 7.40, 7.52, 7.51 and 7.49 and 1.367, 1.296, 1.380 and 1.307 for bulls fed the unsupplemented control wheat, the supplemented control wheat, the unsupplemented andFusarium toxin contaminated wheat and the supplementedFusarium toxin contaminated wheat, respectively. Concentration of ZON and its metabolites in edible tissues were lower than the detection limits of the applied HPLC-method.The results of the rumen physiological investigations revealed that the molar ratios of short chained volatile fatty acids and ammonia concentration in rumen fluid remained unchanged in response to dietary treatments whereas the addition of MP to the diets buffered the postprandial decrease in rumen pH.     

Toxinogenicity of<Emphasis Type="Italic">Microdochium nivale (Fusarium nivale)</Emphasis> isolates from cereals in Poland

Microdochium nivale (Fusarium nivale) was found to be frequently occuring in Poland pathogen of small grain cereals heads, causing symptoms similar to those observed after infection ofFusarium species. In consecutive years since 1985 till 1989 the following percentage of wheat and rye ears infected withM. Nivale and withFusarium head blight symptoms was found: 34%, 21%, 42%, 9%, 46% (wheat) and 57%, 43%, 65%, 4%, 47% (rye) heads.However, in naturally infected rye and wheat samples (kernels and chaff), we did not detect toxins usually present in samples infected with fungi of genusFusarium — such as deoxynivalenol and derivatives. TypicalFusarium trichothecene metabolites were also not present in cultures of 11M. nivale strains, growing 3–5 weeks on rice (45% water content) at 20°C. Cultures of two typical isolates on wheat grain (strain KF 1124) and on rice (KF 245) were found to be non toxic to broiler chickens when present in amount 20–40% in their diet. It can be concluded thatM. nivale (F. nivale) representatives in Poland did not produce toxic metabolites neither under laboratory condition nor after cereal ears infection under field conditions.     

Development of deoxynivalenol contents in relation to the PCR detection of potentially trichothecene producing<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> spp. during storage of wheat

Development of deoxynivalenol (DON) in wheat with a low contamination withFusarium spp. was investigated under suboptimal storage conditions (17% and 20% grain moisture, 20°C). The influence of storage on the relative DNA content of potential DON producers was also determined. The DON contents were quantified using an ELISA. The Tox5 PCR was used for the detection of potential trichothecene producers and for the estimation of their relative DNA content. ThegaoA gene was subsequently amplified by PCR to detect specificallyFusarium graminearum. The concentration ofF. graminearum DNA was semiquantitatively determined using a Light Cycler?. The DON concentrations increased during storage trials but the intensity of PCR signals decreased.     

Occurrence of<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> toxins in the 1999’s harvest

Continuing the monitoring ofFusarium toxins in cereals, we investigated 245 samples of wheat, barley, triticale and oats in 1999. 84 samples out of 100 analysed forFusarium could be found to be infected. The most prominentFusarium species detected whereF. avenaceum, F. poae, F. detected whereF. avenaceum, F. poae, F. graminearum, andF. sporotrichoides. The level of mycotoxin contamination of the samples varied depending on their origins and was in general very low in comparison with the result obtained in samples of the previous year. There where only some wheat samples with deoxynivalenol (DON) concentrations beyond existing advisory levels. The average DON concentration of all samples was 0.35 mg/kg with a median of 0.007 mg/kg. 3-Acetyldeoxynivalenol and zearalenone (ZEA) could only be detected at minor concentrations (below 0.1 and 0.05 mg/kg, respectively) in less than 10% of the samples. The analysis of commercial cereal flour reflects this situation. Flour bought in the first quarter of 1999, which was suspected to contain a high portion of the 1998 harvest, was contaminated by DON to a higher extent than those purchased in 2000. The average DON concentration in the flour samples of 1999 and 2000 was 0.35 mg/kg and 0.23 mg/kg, respectively. Although the general mycotoxin level in the 1999 harvest was lower as in 1998 there were some highly contaminated samples that had mainly been grown in fields with either maize or other cereals as previous crop and reduced tillage. The combination of maize as previous crop and non-tillage could be stated as most unsuitable, which promotes enhanced mycotoxin contamination, and should therefore be avoided.     

Investigation of stored wheat mycoflora,reporting the<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> cf.<Emphasis Type="Italic">langsethiae</Emphasis> in three provinces of Iran during 2007

Wheat is the most important cereal produced in Iran. A mycological survey was carried out for the first time, on the stored wheat samples in Tehran, East Azarbayejan and Mazandaran provinces in 2007. Exogenous and endogenous fungi, were isolated by the method of flotation with Malachite green agar (MGA 0.25) and Freeze blotter techniques respectively. In this study, 46 species belonging to 23 different genera were isolated.Cladosporium spp. (57.1–89.2%) andAlternaria spp. (82.4–100%) species were the predominant fungal species identified as endogenous mycoflora. The predominant exogenous fungi werePenicillium spp. (78.4–92.8%) andAspergillus spp. (71.4–85.7%) species.Fusarium proliferatum was the most prevalent species ofFusarium isolates.Aspergillus niger (39.4%) andAspergillus flavus (36.7%) were the predominantAspergillus species identified as exogenous mycoflora.Aspergillus flavus (26.6%) was the predominantAspergillus species identified as endogenous mycoflora. Flotation method with MGA 0.25 recommended for isolating of hyaline fungi from wheat cereals. In this study one isolate fromFusarium species was isolated on the basis of morphology and ribosomal internal transcribed spacer classified asFusarium langsethiae but on the basis of partial translation elongation factor-1alpha gene grouped withFusarium sporotrichioides. To our knowledge, this is the first report aboutF. cf.langsethiae in Iran and Asia.     

An UDP-Glucosyltransferase Gene from Barley Confers Disease Resistance to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> Head Blight

UDP-glucosyltransferases (UGTs) contribute to Fusarium head blight (FHB) resistance of wheat and barley by glycosylating the deoxynivalenol (DON), which is produced by Fusarium fungus. In this study, seven alleles of barley HvUGT14077 (GenBank No.GU170356.1) were cloned using RT-PCR. Among them, HvUGT-10W1, which was isolated from a FHB resistant barley variety 10W1, was significantly up-regulated in young spikes after F. graminearum (F.g) inoculation. HvUGT-10W1::GFP was subcellularly located in the plasma membrane and cytoplasm of the wheat protoplasts. In vitro antifungal activity assay showed that the HvUGT-10W1 protein exerted obvious inhibition against the growth of F.g. The silencing of the HvUGT-10W1 by virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) resulted in compromised FHB resistance of 10W1, which was shown by the increased infected colonies on the leaves. These indicated that the barley HvUGT-10W1 may also contribute to F.g resistance in barley and provided a potential candidate gene to develop transgenic barley with enhanced FHB resistance.     

Food analysis within the<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> toxin monitoring programme of Saxony-Anhalt

A 3 yearFusarium andFusarium toxin monitoring programme was established within the food and feed control authorities of Saxony-Anhalt in 2001. The first year’s results of the analysis of deoxynivalenol in cereals and cereal products with assured origin in this federal state, showed a contamination rate of 24% for wheat and wheat products. The contamination incidence reached only 8% in rye and rye products, whereas it was 17% for barley and its products including beer. Zearalenone could be detected only in 2 of 162 analysed samples.     

Dispersal of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> spp. by rainwater and pathogenicity on four plant species

Research focused on the occurrence of Fusarium spp. in atmospheric dust or rainwater is not common. Preliminary studies with four sampling dates in 2007 revealed that several species of Fusarium may also be conveyed by rainwater. In order to determine the regular presence of Fusarium spp. in rainfall water, samples were systematically collected for a year (from October 2009 to October 2010) in three points on the Mediterranean coast of the province of Granada (Spain) 10-km distance between them. Throughout the year of sampling, a total of 179 rainwater samples were collected during every significant rainfall event. Eight different Fusarium species were isolated from the rainwater samples: F. oxysporum (32 %), F. proliferatum (26 %) and F. equiseti (20 %) coincide with previous studies, while F. dimerum (3 %), F. semitectum (4.7 %), F. solani (8 %), F. avenaceum (0.5 %) and F. chlamydosporum (3.7 %) were isolated for the first time from rainwater. Results were consistent with previous surveys conducted 100 km away from the sampling sites. Inoculation of 39 different isolates from five different Fusarium species showed pathogenicity on plants. Disease severity differed depending on the inoculated plant species, which means that rain water can be an effective vector to transport new pathogens into new cultivated areas. This work reveals some epidemiological aspects of Fusarium genus in natural environments. Some of the isolated Fusarium spp. are potential mycotoxin producers, such as zearalenone, fumonisin, moniliformin or nivalenol.     

Fungal microbiota from rain water and pathogenicity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> species isolated from atmospheric dust and rainfall dust

In order to determine the presence of Fusarium spp. in atmospheric dust and rainfall dust, samples were collected during September 2007, and July, August, and October 2008. The results reveal the prevalence of airborne Fusarium species coming from the atmosphere of the South East coast of Spain. Five different Fusarium species were isolated from the settling dust: Fusarium oxysporum, F. solani, F. equiseti, F. dimerum, and F. proliferatum. Moreover, rainwater samples were obtained during significant rainfall events in January and February 2009. Using the dilution-plate method, 12 fungal genera were identified from these rainwater samples. Specific analyses of the rainwater revealed the presence of three species of Fusarium: F. oxysporum, F. proliferatum and F. equiseti. A total of 57 isolates of Fusarium spp. obtained from both rainwater and atmospheric rainfall dust sampling were inoculated onto melon (Cucumis melo L.) cv. Piñonet and tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) cv. San Pedro. These species were chosen because they are the main herbaceous crops in Almeria province. The results presented in this work indicate strongly that spores or propagules of Fusarium are able to cross the continental barrier carried by winds from the Sahara (Africa) to crop or coastal lands in Europe. Results show differences in the pathogenicity of the isolates tested. Both hosts showed root rot when inoculated with different species of Fusarium, although fresh weight measurements did not bring any information about the pathogenicity. The findings presented above are strong indications that long-distance transmission of Fusarium propagules may occur. Diseases caused by species of Fusarium are common in these areas. They were in the past, and are still today, a problem for greenhouses crops in Almería, and many species have been listed as pathogens on agricultural crops in this region. Saharan air masses dominate the Mediterranean regions. The evidence of long distance dispersal of Fusarium spp. by atmospheric dust and rainwater together with their proved pathogenicity must be taken into account in epidemiological studies.     

A study of the correlation between the amount of deoxynivalenol in grain of wheat and triticale and percentage of<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> damaged kernels

The correlation between the amount of deoxynivalenol (DON) and the percentage ofFusarium damaged kernels (FDK) in samples of wheat and triticale was studied.Samples of naturally infected wheat grain, collected in 1986, 1987 and 1988 and of triticale collected in 1986 were used.Additionally, artificial inoculated wheat samples (10 genotypes inoculated with 3F. Culmorum strains of weak, medium and severe pathogenicity and samples of 10 triticale genotypes inoculated withF. culmorum. andF. graminearun) were studied. Using statistical methods (the variance analysis, method of least significant difference (LSD), orthogonal contrast (OC) and minimum within groups sum of squares criterion (MSSC)), the samples were divided into two groups with respect to the attribute DON/FDK.To the first group belong samples of wheat and triticale, of which the heads were artificially inoculated with severely pathogenic strainsF. culmorum. In the samples of this group the amount of DON in kernels damaged withFusarium increased by 0,46 mg/kg per 1% of FDK.In the second group, consisting of naturally infected samples and samples from artificially inoculated heads the amount of DON increased 0,30 mg DON/kg per 1% of FDK.The equation for the calculation of approximated amount of DON in farm and commercial lots of wheat and triticale after examination of percentage of FDK is given.     

Rheological and breadmaking properties of wheat samples infected with<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium spp.</Emphasis>

Rheological and breadmaking properties of untreated and suboptimally stored wheat samples (grain moisture: 20%, temperature: 20°C) and also of wheat which was inoculated withFusarium spp. were investigated. The deoxynivalenol (DON) content of the stored and inoculated wheat samples ranged between 820–12,000 μg/kg. Gluten proteins were isolated with different extraction solutions and the fractions obtained were analysed by means of RP-HPLC. Microextension tests and micro-baking tests were used for the determination of dough properties (maximum resistance (MR) and extensibility (EX)) and bread volume, respectively. In spite of the extremely high DON concentrations of some wheat samples contaminated withFusarium spp. they showed only a slight decrease of the amount of gluten proteins. Extension tests of dough led to a slight decrease of MR, bread volumes stayed almost the same compared with the non-contaminated grain. The contamination of wheat withAspergillus andPenicillium led to a high decrease of gluten proteins, which resulted in an extremely decreased MR of the dough and a very low bread volume.     

Feasibility of 3D UV-C treatment to reduce fungal growth and mycotoxin loads on maize and wheat kernels

Fungal disease of grain crops is a concern for the agricultural industry, resulting in economic losses. Aside from severe yield losses, mycotoxigenic fungi such as Penicillium and Fusarium can produce harmful mycotoxins, including deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin A (OTA). This proof-of-concept study explored the feasibility and effects of ultraviolet (UV) C light at 253.7 nm to reduce fungal and mycotoxin loads on model surfaces as well as on maize and wheat kernels using benchtop 2D and 3D illumination strategies. Reduction of Penicillium verrucosum (98.6%) and Fusarium graminearum (88.8%) on agar was achieved using a UV-C dose of 100 mJ cm^?2. Naturally occurring fungal growth resembling P. verrucosum on maize was reduced by 79% after exposure to 5000 mJ cm^?2. Similarly, fungal growth resembling F. graminearum on maize was reduced by 60% with 1000 mJ cm^?2. On wheat, significant reduction of fungal growth was not observed. Maximal reduction of DON (97.3%), ZEN (75.4%), and OTA (91.2%) on filter paper was obtained using 15,000 mJ cm^?2. The overall reduction of DON (30%; 14%), ZEN (52%; 42%), and OTA (17%; 6%) on maize and wheat, respectively, was lower than on filter paper. Moisture and crude protein content as well as percent germination of maize kernels were not affected by UV-C treatment up to 5000 mJ cm^?2. This study has shown that 3D UV-C treatment is a feasible option for reducing Fusarium and Penicillium growth on maize kernels and, at higher doses, decreasing ZEN by ~?50%.     

Comparison of DNA Microarray,Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) and Real-Time PCR with DNA Sequencing for Identification of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> spp. Obtained from Patients with Hematologic Malignancies

The performance of three molecular biology techniques, i.e., DNA microarray, loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), and real-time PCR were compared with DNA sequencing for properly identification of 20 isolates of Fusarium spp. obtained from blood stream as etiologic agent of invasive infections in patients with hematologic malignancies. DNA microarray, LAMP and real-time PCR identified 16 (80%) out of 20 samples as Fusarium solani species complex (FSSC) and four (20%) as Fusarium spp. The agreement among the techniques was 100%. LAMP exhibited 100% specificity, while DNA microarray, LAMP and real-time PCR showed 100% sensitivity. The three techniques had 100% agreement with DNA sequencing. Sixteen isolates were identified as FSSC by sequencing, being five Fusarium keratoplasticum, nine Fusarium petroliphilum and two Fusarium solani. On the other hand, sequencing identified four isolates as Fusarium non-solani species complex (FNSSC), being three isolates as Fusarium napiforme and one isolate as Fusarium oxysporum. Finally, LAMP proved to be faster and more accessible than DNA microarray and real-time PCR, since it does not require a thermocycler. Therefore, LAMP signalizes as emerging and promising methodology to be used in routine identification of Fusarium spp. among cases of invasive fungal infections.     

Effect of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol on grain aphid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sitobion avenae</Emphasis> and its parasitic wasp <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aphidius ervi</Emphasis> through food chain contamination

We investigated the influence of the Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol on the English grain aphid Sitobion avenae (Hemiptera: Aphididae) and its parasitic wasp Aphidius ervi (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) using in vitro laboratory experiments. In this tritrophic interaction, deoxynivalenol caused lethal (declined survival) and sublethal (prolonged nymphal development and reduced reproduction) effects on S. avenae aphids and consequentially led to a decreased production of parasitoid offspring resulting from parasitized deoxynivalenol-contaminated aphids. This paper highlights that the presence of mycotoxins should be considered in environmental risk assessment tests because they may alter the efficiency of biological control agents such as parasitoids through food chain contamination.     

A mini-survey of moulds and mycotoxins in locally grown and imported wheat grains in Nigeria

A preliminary survey involving limited sample size was conducted to determine the spectrum of moulds and mycotoxins in wheat grains from flour mills and local markets in Nigeria. Fourteen wheat samples were analyzed for moulds using standard mycological methods and for toxic fungal metabolites using a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method. Fusarium (range of incidence 12.5–61.7%) dominated in the wheat grains though species of Aspergillus (range of incidence 2.24–3.86%) were also recovered from the samples. The identified fungal species were Aspergillus flavus (7.7%), Aspergillus niger clade (2.6%), Fusarium avenaceum (10.9%), Fusarium culmorum (22.4%) and Fusarium graminearum (56.4%). A total of 54 microbial metabolites were detected in the samples at concentration ranging between 0.01 μg/kg for macrosporin and 2560 μg/kg for deoxynivalenol. Among the four mycotoxins addressed by regulations in the European Union (EU) found in the samples, deoxynivalenol (incidence 100%) dominated in the samples and its levels exceeded the maximum acceptable EU limit (750 μg/kg) in 36% of the samples. This report underscores the need for more robust surveys with larger sample sizes and across several agro-ecologies in the country.     

Shifting von Fusarienarten und ihren Toxinen in österreichischem Getreide

Based on representative analyses of Austrian cereals, a distinct shift in the spectrum of Fusarium toxins and Fusarium species has been observed since the middle of the eighties.Although in the case of maizeF subglutinans — apart fromF graminearum — proved to be the most frequent and constant contaminant over the entire range of test series, there has been a shift in the spectrum of species which is not to be explained simply by seasonal variations or by the varying degree of occurrence of the European corn borer, which in Austria is considered to be the main vector for infections involving fusaria of the Liseola section. Compared to the results from earlier vegetation periods, the nineties brought a significant increase in the number of infections withF proliferatum, a fumonisin-producer. In all likelihood, this shift in the spectrum of species is due to the changed climatic conditions now prevailing in Austria — milder and more humid winters vs. drier and warmer summers — which favour the progress ofF proliferatum.The principal toxin-forming fungus on cereals in Austria isF graminearum. On maize, its respective populations are exclusively those which produce 15-acetyl-DON as a precursor to DON (deoxynivalenol). Whilst in the 1980s,F graminearum isolates from wheat yielded both 15-acetyl-DON and 3-acetyl-DON types, only 15-acetyl-DON populations could be detected in the last few years. One possible explanation for this phenomenon is the continual intensification of maize-wheat crop rotations. In the light of the above observations, the frequently used argument whereby EuropeanF graminearum isolates produce mainly 3-acetyl-DON and American strains prevalently 15-acetyl-DON will have to be reviewed.