LCA of soybean meal

Background, Aim and Scope  Soybean meal is an important protein input to the European livestock production, with Argentina being an important supplier. The area cultivated with soybeans is still increasing globally, and so are the number of LCAs where the production of soybean meal forms part of the product chain. In recent years there has been increasing focus on how soybean production affects the environment. The purpose of the study was to estimate the environmental consequences of soybean meal consumption using a consequential LCA approach. The functional unit is ‘one kg of soybean meal produced in Argentina and delivered to Rotterdam Harbor’. Materials and Methods  Soybean meal has the co-product soybean oil. In this study, the consequential LCA method was applied, and co-product allocation was thereby avoided through system expansion. In this context, system expansion implies that the inputs and outputs are entirely ascribed to soybean meal, and the product system is subsequently expanded to include the avoided production of palm oil. Presently, the marginal vegetable oil on the world market is palm oil but, to be prepared for fluctuations in market demands, an alternative product system with rapeseed oil as the marginal vegetable oil has been established. EDIP97 (updated version 2.3) was used for LCIA and the following impact categories were included: Global warming, eutrophication, acidification, ozone depletion and photochemical smog. Results  Two soybean loops were established to demonstrate how an increased demand for soybean meal affects the palm oil and rapeseed oil production, respectively. The characterized results from LCA on soybean meal (with palm oil as marginal oil) were 721 gCO₂ eq. for global warming potential, 0.3 mg CFC11 eq. for ozone depletion potential, 3.1 g SO₂ eq. for acidification potential, −2 g NO₃ eq. for eutrophication potential and 0.4 g ethene eq. for photochemical smog potential per kg soybean meal. The average area per kg soybean meal consumed was 3.6 m²year. Attributional results, calculated by economic and mass allocation, are also presented. Normalised results show that the most dominating impact categories were: global warming, eutrophication and acidification. The ‘hot spot’ in relation to global warming, was ‘soybean cultivation’, dominated by N₂O emissions from degradation of crop residues (e.g., straw) and during biological nitrogen fixation. In relation to eutrophication and acidification, the transport of soybeans by truck is important, and sensitivity analyses showed that the acidification potential is very sensitive to the increased transport distance by truck. Discussion  The potential environmental impacts (except photochemical smog) were lower when using rapeseed oil as the marginal vegetable oil, because the avoided production of rapeseed contributes more negatively compared with the avoided production of palm oil. Identification of the marginal vegetable oil (palm oil or rapeseed oil) turned out to be important for the result, and this shows how crucial it is in consequential LCA to identify the right marginal product system (e.g., marginal vegetable oil). Conclusions  Consequential LCAs were successfully performed on soybean meal and LCA data on soybean meal are now available for consequential (or attributional) LCAs on livestock products. The study clearly shows that consequential LCAs are quite easy to handle, even though it has been necessary to include production of palm oil, rapeseed and spring barley, as these production systems are affected by the soybean oil co-product. Recommendations and Perspectives  We would appreciate it if the International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment had articles on the developments on, for example, marginal protein, marginal vegetable oil, marginal electricity (related to relevant markets), marginal heat, marginal cereals and, likewise, on metals and other basic commodities. This will not only facilitate the work with consequential LCAs, but will also increase the quality of LCAs.     

Lamb and milk production of Awassi and East-Friesian sheep and their crosses under Mediterranean environment

Data on lambs born per ewe put to the ram (LB/EP), lambs born per ewe lambing (LB/EL), milk production through lactation and lactation length up to six lambings of 603 Awassi (A), East-Friesian (EF), A × EF (F1), F1 × F1 (F2), EF × F1 (1/4A), 1/4A × F1 (3/8A¹) and 3/8A¹ × 3/8A¹ (3/8A²) ewes bred in the same flock in the years 1956–1971 were analysed. The data were obtained from 2293 ewe-years, 1993 lambings and 1698 lactations. Genotype, age at lambing and sire within genotype had an (P < 0.05) effect on each trait. Effect of year of birth, genotype by age at lambing interaction and genotype by year of birth interaction were significant (P < 0.05) for milk production but not for lamb production. The effects of litter size on milk yield and lactation length were not significant. Least squares means (LSM) of LB/EP were highest in 3/8A² (1.48) and lowest in Awassi (0.98). LSMs of LB/EL were highest in EF (1.60), and lowest in Awassi (1.11). The LSMs of milk yield of A, F1, F2 and 3/8A² were similar, ranging from 223 to 248.1. The milk yield of EF was the lowest: only 161 1. The LSMs for lactation length were similar in all genotypes, about 198 days except for 1/4A and EF which had shorter (P < 0.05) lactations. The Awassi-transmitted effects were positive (P < 0.001) for lactation length and milk yield, and negative (P < 0.001) for LB/EL. Heterosis (P < 0.001) was found for LB/EL, milk yield and lactation length. Recombination effect was not significant for any trait.     

Regrouping in lactating goats increases aggression and decreases milk production

With the aim of testing the hypothesis that regrouping decreases milk production in French Alpine goats that were lactating, a study was done using two groups (n = 8, 7). During their third month after parturition, four goats from each group were exchanged (first regrouping) between pens and left for 2 weeks, then the same two subgroups of four goats were taken back to their original pen for another 2 weeks (second regrouping). In the third regrouping, the two groups were all placed in the one pen. Milk production and social behaviour were measured daily before and after each regrouping. All regroupings led to an increase in aggressive behaviours that last by 1–2 days. Mean daily milk production decreased after first (2.82 ± 0.2 kg versus 2.53 ± 0.2 kg; P < 0.05) but not after second and third regrouping. It is concluded that aggressive behaviour increases after all regroupings, whereas milk production decreases only after the first regrouping, suggesting an important capacity of adaptation to a novel and stressful managements in the French Alpine goat. The study highlights the importance of considering effects of common practices in herd managements on social behaviour and production.     

LCA of food products and production systems

This article is a summary of my dissertation in which LCA was applied to food products and production systems. The overall objectives were: (1) to learn more about the feasibility and limitations of LCAs of systems for the production and consumption of foods (food systems); and (2) to generate information on the environmental impact of such systems. Case studies of tomato ketchup and white bread were carried out. The main conclusion is that LCA is very valuable for incorporating environmental aspects in the development of more sustainable food systems. One of the major problems encountered was the great scarcity of environmental data. It was found that there is a need for simplified methods that can be used as a compass to show the direction towards sustainability. Accordingly, the feasibility of combinng the concept of sustainabiliry principles and LCA for product development was examined and discussed. This combination was found to yield a simplified method well suited for screening analysis and product development.     

Shift in the marginal supply of vegetable oil

Background, Aims and Scope

The consequential approach to system delimitation in LCA requires that consideration of the technologies and suppliers included are ‘marginal’, i.e. that they are actually affected by a change in demand. Furthermore, coproduct allocation must be avoided by system expansion. Vegetable oils constitute a significant product group included in many LCAs that are intended for use in decision support. This article argues that the vegetable oil market has faced major changes around the turn of the century. The aim of this study is to study the marginal supply of vegetable oil as it has shifted to palm oil and describe the product system of the new supply.

Methods

The methods for identification of marginal technologies and suppliers and for avoiding co-product allocation are based on the work of Weidema (2003). The marginal vegetable oil is identified on the basis of agricultural statistics on production volumes and prices. A co-product from palm oil production is palm kernel meal, which is used for fodder purposes where it has two main properties: protein and energy. When carrying out system expansion, these properties are taken into account.

Results

The major vegetable oils are soy oil, palm oil, rapeseed oil and sun oil. These oils are substitutable within the most common applications. Based on market trends, a shift from rapeseed oil to palm oil as the marginal vegetable oil is identified around the year 2000, when palm oil turns out to be the most competitive oil. It is recommended to regard palm oil and its dependent co-product palm kernel oil as the marginal vegetable oil. The analysis of the product system shows that the demand for 1 kg palm oil requires 4.49 kg FFB (oil palm fruit) and the displacement of 0.035 kg soybeans (marginal source of fodder protein) and 0.066 kg barley (marginal source of fodder energy).

Discussion

The identification of the marginal vegetable oil and the avoidance of co-product allocation by system expansion showed that several commodities may be affected when using the consequential approach. Hence, the product system for vegetable oils is relatively complex compared to traditional LCAs in which average technologies and suppliers are applied and in which co-product allocation is carried out by applying an allocation factor.

Conclusions

This article presents how the marginal vegetable oil can be identified and that co-product allocation between oils and meal can be avoided by system expansion, by considering the energy and protein content in the meal, which displaces a mix of the marginal sources of energy and protein for animal fodder (barley and soy meal, respectively).

Recommendations and Perspectives

The implication of a shift in the marginal vegetable oil is significant. Many LCAs on rapeseed oil have been conducted and are being used as decision support in the bio energy field. Thus, based on consequential LCA methodology, it is argued that these LCAs need to be revised, since they no longer focus on the oil actually affected.

     

Influence of maternal dietary calcium levels on milk zinc, calcium and phosphorus contents and milk production in rats

The aim of this study was to analyze zinc (Zn), calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) contents in milk and the lactational performance in rats fed different Ca levels. Female Wistar rats were fed during pregnancy and lactation with experimental diets containing 20% protein and high (0.90%, HCa), normal (0.60%, NCa) or low (0.20%, LCa) Ca levels. Milk samples were collected after 15 days to determine the milk mineral composition. Pup weight was recorded from birth to weaning (litter size: 6-8 pups) to determine weight gain and calculate milk production. At delivery there were no significant differences in the body weight of the pups between the groups, but at day 15, the LCa group showed lower values than both NCa and HCa groups (p<0.05). The weight gain of the LCa group was significantly lower than of the HCa and NCa groups, between delivery and day 5 (p<0.05). This reduced rate of weight gain led to the LCa group reaching weaning weight later than the other groups. Milk production (g/pup/day) was significantly lower when dams were fed the LCa than the NCa and HCa diets (p<0.05). There were no significant differences among the groups in milk Ca, P and Zn levels and Ca/P ratio. The body mineral composition of the pups at birth did not differ between the groups; at weaning, however, both LCa and HCa groups had lower element contents than the NCa group (p<0.05). In conclusion, dams fed with a diet containing low Ca levels produced smaller volumes of milk and their pups reached weaning weights later than the other groups. As the milk mineral composition was not affected, it can be hypothesized that in dams fed low dietary Ca, the smaller milk yield might have been a way of maintaining milk quality. High Ca levels affected neither pregnancy outcome nor lactational performance.     

Application of uncertainty and variability in LCA

As yet, the application of an uncertainty and variability analysis is not common practice in LCAs. A proper analysis will be facilitated when it is clear which types of uncertainties and variabilities exist in LCAs and which tools are available to deal with them. Therefore, a framework is developed to classify types of uncertainty and variability in LCAs. Uncertainty is divided in (1) parameter uncertainty, (2) model uncertainty, and (3) uncertainty due to choices, while variability covers (4) spatial variability, (5) temporal variability, and (6) variability between objects and sources. A tool to deal with parameter uncertainty and variability between objects and sources in both the inventory and the impact assessment is probabilistic simulation. Uncertainty due to choices can be dealt with in a scenario analysis or reduced by standardisation and peer review. The feasibility of dealing with temporal and spatial variability is limited, implying model uncertainty in LCAs. Other model uncertainties can be reduced partly by more sophisticated modelling, such as the use of non-linear inventory models in the inventory and multi media models in the characterisation phase.     

Environmental profile and critical temperature effects on milk production of Holstein cows in desert climate

The environmental profile of central Arizona is quantitatively described using meteorological data between 1971 and 1986. Utilizing ambient temperature criteria of hours per day less than 21° C, between 21 and 27° C, and more than 27° C, the environmental profile of central Arizona consists of varying levels of thermoneutral and heat stress periods. Milk production data from two commercial dairy farms from March 1990 to February 1991 were used to evaluate the seasonal effects identified in the environmental profile. Overall, milk production is lower during heat stress compared to thermoneutral periods. During heat stress, the cool period of hours per day with temperature less than 21° C provides a margin of safety to reduce the effects of heat stress on decreased milk production. Using minimum, mean and maximum ambient temperatures, the upper critical temperatures for milk production are 21, 27 and 32° C, respectively. Using the temperature-humidity index as the thermal environment indicator, the critical values for minimum, mean and maximum THI are 64, 72 and 76, respectively.     

Early prepartum shearing increases milk production of wool sheep and the weight of the lambs at birth and weaning

The use of mid prepartum shearing has been described as a possible tool to increase the weight of the lambs at birth and at weaning. The effect of prepartum shearing (53 days of gestation) on production and chemical composition of milk, weight of the lambs at birth and weaning and growth rate were evaluated in this trial. Twenty Polwarth ewes were inseminated with rams of the same breed in May (autumn), 2009. All ewes bore singletons and were maintained together under cultivated grazing conditions, during the experimental period. The ewes were allocated to two treatments groups, based on expected day of parturition, body weight and BCS of the dams. Ten ewes were shorn at 53 days of gestation (S53) and 10 ewes were kept unshorn during gestation (US). Milking of the ewes was recorded 7 days after parturition, and this was repeated weekly for 15 weeks. Milk production of the S53 ewes was 22.2% higher (P < 0.05), when compared to US control ewes - with no change in the milk composition. At lambing, the lambs born to the S53 ewes were 1.41 kg (P < 0.05), and at weaning 4.5 kg heavier (P < 0.05), than lambs born to US ewes. In conclusion, it can be said that the higher weaning weight of the S53 lambs was the result of both a higher birth weight and an increased growth rate up to weaning in part, due to an improved milk production of the ewes.     

LCA of Danish Fish Products. New methods and insights (9 pp)

Goal, Scope and Background This article presents the main results from a PhD dissertation about environmental impacts from Danish fish products. The focus is on LCA results for flatfish, but the article also gives an overview of screenings of other fish species. Furthermore, it includes an analysis of the energy consumption in the fishing stage – as a function of fish species and fishing methods. Alternative impact categories that have not been included in the quantitative LCA and policy perspectives are elaborated in the discussion part of the paper. Methods The study represents a consequential LCA approach (opposed to attributional) and the functional unit is one kg consumed flatfish filet in units of 300 gram (cardboard boxes). Data are obtained from statistics, interviews, literature, and databases – mainly ETH-ESU 96 and the Danish LCA food database. The EDIP 97 method has been applied for life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) and the results have been verified by Ecoindicator 99. Results The results of the flatfish LCA show that the fishing stage has the largest impact potential for the investigated impact categories. This is mainly due to a relatively high fuel consumption and significant emissions of biocides from anti-fouling agents (contributing to ecological toxicity). But large reductions in fuel intensity (fuel consumption per kg caught fish) can be obtained by changing the type of fishing gear – particularly in flatfish fisheries. The consumption and retail stages represent significant impact potentials as well, while processing is insignificant. LCA screenings of other fish species show the same picture, but there are cases (herring, mackerel and mussels) where the fishing stage is less important, while the opposite is the case for processing – mainly due to energy intensive packaging materials. Discussion A limited number of impact categories have been investigated, but a 'qualitative' LCA, focusing on other fishery specific impacts, emphasises that the fishing stage is indeed the overall most important. In this regard, it is argued that fuel requirements in many cases are proportional to environmental impacts related to 'discard' and 'seafloor damage'. Hence, it is worth focusing on energy for many reasons. In a policy context, it is a paradox that mainly the fish processing industry has been subjected to environmental regulations. Recommendation and Perspective Future scenarios indicate that energy consumption will remain one of the most important environmental aspects in the fishing stage – partly due to regulations of anti-fouling biocides (e.g. TBT) and partly because of the continued depletion of fish stocks. From an environmental policy perspective, it is therefore recommended to broaden the perspective of existing fishery regulations and increase the focus on fishing gear and energy in the primary production (fishing stage).     

Effects of flaxseed supplementation on milk production,milk fatty acid composition and nutrient utilization by lactating dairy cows

Twelve multiparous Holstein cows at 72 ± 20 days in milk were used in a switch-back design with 14-d periods to determine the effect of replacing barley grain into a dairy total mixed ration with micronized or raw flaxseed on nutrient digestibility, milk yield, milk composition. Total mixed diets were (DM basis) 50% barley silage, 50% concentrate mix mainly rolled barley grain and canola meal. Diets were supplemented with 1 kg raw (RF) or micronized (MF) flaxseed to substitute 1 kg of rolled barley grain (C). Neutral detergent fibre, ADF and CP digestibility of the diets were not significantly affected by supplementation; however, calcium digestibility was reduced by 62% and 46% when raw and micronized flax were fed, respectively. Milk yield (38.3, 39.6, and 38.4 kg/d for diets C, RF and MF, respectively) was similar for all diets. Milk fat (3.50, 3.48, and 3.52%) and protein (3.31, 3.34, and 3.31%) for diets C, RF and MF, respectively, were not affected by treatment diets. Concentrations of c9, t11 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA; 0.51, 0.72 and 0.76 g/100 g fatty acids) in milk fat increased (P < 0.05) similarly among the two flaxseed supplemented diets. The RF and MF diets significantly increased the C18:1, C18:1 trans-11, C18:2 cis-9, cis-12 and C18:3 in milk fat however, C12:0, C14:0 and C16:0 were significantly reduced compared with control. Replacing barley grain with flaxseed in the diet of lactating cows increased the beneficial fatty acids in milk without depressing nutrient digestibility. Micronization of flaxseed did not reveal any advantage over raw flaxseed.     

Effects of evaporative cooling on the regulation of body water and milk production in crossbred Holstein cattle in a tropical environment

The aim of this study was to determine how evaporative cooling modifies body function with respect to water metabolism and other variables relevant to milk synthesis in crossbred cattle. The study was conducted on two groups of 0.875HF:0.125RS crossbred Holstein cattle (87.5%) housed in an open-sided barn with a tiled roof (non-cooled animals) and in a close-sided barn under an evaporative cooling system (cooled animals). The maximum ambient temperature and relative humidity for the non-cooled group were 33 degrees C and 61%, with the corresponding values for the evaporatively cooled barn being 28 degrees C and 84%, respectively. The temperature humidity index (THI) of under non-cooled conditions was higher (P < 0.05) than that in the cooled barn. Rectal temperatures and respiration rates of non-cooled animals were higher (P < 0.05) than those of cooled animals. Daily dry matter intake (DMI) of cooled animals was higher while water intakes were lower (P < 0.05) than those of non-cooled animals. The mean absolute values of plasma volume, blood volume, and extracellular fluid (ECF) of cooled animals were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those of non-cooled animals throughout all stages of lactation. Milk yields of cooled animals were higher by 42%, 36% and 79% on average than those of non-cooled animals during early-, mid- and late-lactation, respectively. The decline in milk yields as lactation advances was markedly apparent in late-lactating non-cooled animals, while no significant changes in milk composition at different stages of lactation were observed in either group. Mean arterial plasma concentrations, arteriovenous concentration differences (A-V differences) and the extraction ratio across the mammary gland for acetate, glucose and triglyceride of cooled animals were not significantly different compared with values for non-cooled animals. No differences were seen in plasma hormonal levels for triiodotyronine (T(3)) and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), but plasma cortisol and thyroxine (T(4)) levels tended to be lower in non-cooled animals. This study suggests that low cooling temperature accompanied by high humidity influences a galactopoietic effect, in part through increases in ECF, blood volume and plasma volume in association with an increase in DMI, which partitions the distribution of nutrients to the mammary gland for milk synthesis. Cooled animals were unable to maintain high milk yield as lactation advances even though a high level of body fluids was maintained during long-term cooled exposure. The decline in milk yield, coinciding with a decrease in net energy for lactation as lactation advances, could be attributed to a local change within the mammary gland.     

Use of assisted reproduction for the improvement of milk production in dairy camels (Camelus dromedarius)

Despite their production potential and ability to survive on marginal resources in extreme conditions, dromedaries have not been exploited as an important food source. Camels have not been specifically selected for milk production, and genetic improvement has been negligible. High individual variation in milk production both within the population and within breeds provides a good base for selection and genetic progress. In this paper, we discuss the possibilities and constraints of selective breeding for milk production in camels, and include a summary of the use of embryo transfer at the world's first camel dairy farm. Embryo transfer is an integral part of the breeding strategy at the camel dairy farm because it increases selection intensity and decreases the generation interval. Using high milk-producing camels as donors and low producing camels as recipients, 146 embryos were recovered (6.1 ± 1.0 embryos/donor; range: 0–18). Embryos were transferred non-surgically into 111 recipients (83 single and 28 twin embryo transfers). Pregnancy rate at 21 days and 5 months was 55% (61/111) and 45% (50/111), respectively. Finally, a total of 46 recipients delivered a live calf. These results document the utility of embryo transfer using high milk producing dromedaries as donors.     

Evaluating options in LCA: The emergence of conflicting paradigms for impact assessment and evaluation

LCA aims to help direct decisions in an environmentally sustainable direction. It indicates the environmental effects of choices and evaluates these against this background. Approaches to evaluation in LCA differ substantially, related to the way of modelling environmental effects and to the way these effects are combined into an overall judgement on alternative options. Several approaches are now operational, which are linked to different paradigms in decision making. It is shown that the choice of paradigm is quite decisive on the outcome of the analysis. Also within similar paradigms, different methods now operational may lead to different outcomes. These latter differences may be alleviated more easily than those related to paradigmatic choices, as they are partly a matter of refinement, and they partly result from legitimate differences in subjective priorities. The more basic paradigmatic differences can hardly be bridged. The practical relevancy of the subject is proven by applying different operational methods to one case, showing widely differing outcomes. The paradigm behind evaluating environmental effects is either values based, directly or through policy decisions, or economics based, as individual preferences measured in the monetary terms of willingness-to-pay. Accordingly, the different methods are “policy-oriented” or “monetary”. It may be doubted if the differences between these can be overcome in standardisation.     

Analysis of milk gland structure and function in Glossina morsitans: milk protein production, symbiont populations and fecundity

A key process in the tsetse reproductive cycle is the transfer of essential nutrients and bacterial symbionts from mother to intrauterine offspring. The tissue mediating this transfer is the milk gland. This work focuses upon the localization and function of two milk proteins (milk gland protein (GmmMGP) and transferrin (GmmTsf)) and the tsetse endosymbionts (Sodalis and Wigglesworthia), in the context of milk gland physiology. Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and immunohistochemical analysis confirm that the milk gland secretory cells synthesize and secrete milk gland protein and transferrin. Knockdown of gmmmgp by double stranded RNA (dsRNA) mediated RNA interference results in reduction of tsetse fecundity, demonstrating its functional importance in larval nutrition and development. Bacterial species-specific in situ hybridizations of milk gland sections reveal large numbers of Sodalis and Wigglesworthia within the lumen of the milk gland. Sodalis is also localized within the cytoplasm of the secretory cells. Within the lumen, Wigglesworthia localize close to the channels leading to the milk storage reservoir of the milk gland secretory cells. We discuss the significance of the milk gland in larval nutrition and in transmission of symbiotic bacteria to developing offspring.     

Avoiding Co-Product Allocation in Life-Cycle Assessment

Abstract: In a life‐cycle assessment (LCA) involving only one of several products from the same process, how are the resource consumption and the emissions associated with this process to be partitioned and distributed over these co‐products? This is the central question in co‐product allocation, which has been one of the most controversial issues in the development of the methodology for life‐cycle assessment, as it may significantly influence or even determine the result of the assessments. In this article, it is shown that in prospective life‐cycle assessments, co‐product allocation can always be avoided by system expansion. Through a number of examples, it is demonstrated how system expansion is performed, with special emphasis on issues that earlier have been a focus of the allocation debate, such as joint production (e.g., of chlorine and sodium hydroxide, zinc and heavy metals, and electricity and heat), the handling of “near‐to‐waste” by‐products, processes simultaneously supplying services to multiple product systems, and credits for material recycling and downcycling. It is shown that all the different co‐product situations can be covered by the same theoretical model and the same practical procedure, and that it is also possible to include the traditional co‐product allocation as a special case of the presented procedure. The uncertainty aspects of the presented procedure are discussed. A comparison is made with the procedure of ISO 14041, “Life‐cycle assessment—Goal and scope definition and inventory analysis,” the international standard.     

LCA of cleaning and degreasing agents in the metal industry

An LCA of cleaning and degreasing agents in the metal industry was carried out. A comparison was made between a solvent product (VOC: a mixture of dearomatised hydrocarbons) and two products derived from vegetable oils (VOFA: rapeseed methyl ester and ethylhexyl laurate derived from coconut oil). The comparison was based on 1000 kg of used product. Results from the inventory and characterisation show that VOFA are environmentally favourable on aspects related to their low volatility and their use of renewable resources. However, they are less favourable on aspects predominantly related to cultivation of the crops. The environmental favourability of VOFA compared to VOC is strongly dependent upon the amounts needed for the task to be performed. Incorporation of data from practical experience concerning the use and waste treatment of VOFA in the metal industry may possibly further improve the environmental profile of VOFA. This work was presented at the 17th Annual Meeting of the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), November 19,1996, in Washington, DC. It was one of a series of presentations during the LCA session.     

Environmental assessment of yield improvements obtained by the use of the enzyme phospholipase in mozzarella cheese production

Background, aim and scope  Phospholipase is an enzyme which is able to increase the yield of cheese in, for instance, mozzarella production. Milk production is the most important source of environmental impacts in cheese production and it is obvious to assume that the milk saving that comes with the use of phospholipase reduces the overall environmental impacts of the final product. Production of industrial phospholipase is, however, also associated with environmental burdens and it is not known whether and to what extent the use of phospholipase is justified by overall environmental improvements. The aim of the present study is therefore to assess the environmental impacts that come with the use of industrial phospholipase in mozzarella production and compare with the savings that come with the avoided milk production. The study addresses mozzarella production in Denmark. Methods  LCA is used as analytical tool and environmental modelling is facilitated in SimaPro 7.1.8 LCA software. Yield improvements refer to full scale industrial application of phospholipase in cheese industry. The study is a comparative analysis and a marginal and market-oriented approach is taken. The study addresses contribution to global warming, acidification, nutrient enrichment, photochemical smog formation, energy consumption and use of agricultural land. Estimation of environmental impact potentials is based on Eco-indicator 95 v.2.1 equivalency factors. Toxicity is addressed by qualitative means. Results  The environmental impacts induced by phospholipase production are small compared with the savings obtained by reduced milk consumption for mozzarella production when all impact indicators are considered. Sensitivity analyses and data quality assessments indicate that this general outcome of the study is robust, although results at the more detailed level are the subject of much variation and uncertainty. Discussion  Transport of the enzyme from producer to mozzarella producer is insignificant and the general outcome of the study is considered applicable to other regions of the world where milk is produced in modern milk production systems. Conclusions  Use of phospholipase as a yield improvement factor is a means of reducing environmental impact of mozzarella production. Recommendations and perspectives  The total annual global warming mitigation potential of phospholipase used in production of mozzarella and other pasta filata products is in the order of 7 × 10⁸ kg CO₂ equivalents. The use of phospholipase is driven by overall cost savings and it is therefore recommended that the enzyme should be given attention as a cost-efficient means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions.     

Detection of early pregnancy-specific proteins in Holstein milk

Bovine pregnancy is commonly diagnosed by rectal palpation or ultrasonography and changes in progesterone concentration. To determine a simpler and less expensive diagnostic method, we sought to identify early pregnancy-specific proteins in bovine milk by comparing samples collected from pregnant and non-pregnant Holstein cattle. Of the 600-700 protein spots visible on 2-DE gel images, 39 were differentially expressed in milk from pregnant and non-pregnant cattle. Antibodies generated against synthetic peptides of milk whey proteins expressed specifically during pregnancy were used to confirm protein expression patterns. Western blot analysis showed that the levels of expression of lactoferrin (lactotransferrin) and alpha1G T-type calcium channel subunit (alpha-1G) were higher in samples from pregnant than non-pregnant cattle. These findings suggest that assays for pregnancy-specific milk proteins may be used to diagnose pregnancy in cattle.     

Effects of feeding sainfoin proanthocyanidins to lactating ewes on intake,milk production and plasma metabolites

There is increasing interest in using sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) to feed sheep, but it contains proanthocyanidins (PACs), and the associated effects of PAC on sheep production are not well-known. The aim of the study was to assess the effect of the presence of PAC from sainfoin, through the inclusion of polyethylene glycol (PEG), on the intake and productive parameters of local ewes bearing one male lamb. For the experiment, 20 ewes and their newborn male lambs were placed in individual indoor cages. All ewes were fed ad libitum fresh sainfoin plus 200 g/d barley. Twice daily, half of the ewes were orally dosed with only water (Sainfoin Group; n = 10), and the other half were orally dosed with 100 g/d PEG 4000 per ewe (Sainfoin + PEG Group; n = 10). Sucking lambs were permanently housed with their dams until they reached 10–12 kg BW. The intake of sainfoin was recorded daily, and its chemical composition was analysed. Weekly, the BW, body condition score (BCS), milk yields and individual milk and blood samples were recorded. At the beginning and end of the experiment, faecal samples were collected from ewes and analysed for the anthelmintic role of PAC. The chemical composition, polyphenol content and antioxidant capacity of the diet and milk were analysed. The presence of PAC did not affect the intake, BW, BCS or milk yield of the dams (P > 0.05); however, all parameters were affected by the week of lactation (P < 0.05). Milk components were affected by the week of lactation (P < 0.001), but only the polyphenol and urea contents were reduced in the presence of PAC (P < 0.01). Similarly, the presence of PAC decreased the plasma urea concentration (P < 0.01) without effect on the rest of metabolites, polyphenols and antioxidant activity (P > 0.05). The presence of PAC had no effect on parasitism (P > 0.05). In conclusion, the presence of PAC had no relevant effects on milk production, although it affected protein metabolism, as indicated by the urea contents in milk and plasma.