不同寡聚形式的Aβ42与细胞膜作用显示毒性差异

β-淀粉样蛋白（β-amyloid peptide, Aβ）与神经细胞膜的相互作用是阿尔茨海默症（Alzheimer’s disease, AD）发病的重要事件,但不同寡聚形式的Aβ与细胞膜相互作用的差异仍缺乏直接比较。本文通过膜天平、透射电子显微镜、Thioflavin T(ThT)和细胞毒性实验等方法,检测Aβ42单体、ADDL、原纤维等形式的β-淀粉样蛋白与磷脂膜的作用方式,分析不同形式淀粉样蛋白对细胞的毒性作用。结果显示,（1）单层膜的实验数据可以判断Aβ42单体和寡聚体插膜能力存在差异,Aβ42单体能插入磷脂单层膜内,而Aβ42 ADDL不具备插膜能力;（2）透射电镜和ThT荧光检测,定性定量地分析出不同聚集形式的Aβ42具有不同的纤维化能力,Aβ42单体纤维化能力最强,而Aβ42原纤维的纤维化能力次之,Aβ42ADDL很难形成纤维;（3）Aβ42单体细胞毒性较弱,而Aβ42 ADDL和原纤维的细胞毒性较强。由以上结果可以得出结论：在磷脂膜存在的条件下,Aβ42单体可以插入膜内并迅速形成无毒性的Aβ42纤维,因此,细胞毒性较弱。而ADDL及原纤维不能插入膜内,纤维化能力较弱,从而以寡聚体的形式发挥细胞毒性。将单体、ADDL及原纤维形式的Aβ42与细胞膜相互作用进行分析,将为Aβ42在AD中的毒性机制研究提供一定的参考。但各种寡聚体入胞的方式及毒性机制仍需要进一步研究。     

模型膜实验方法在β淀粉样蛋白与细胞膜间相互作用中的应用与改进

β淀粉样蛋白(amyloid β peptide,Aβ)与细胞膜间的相互作用很可能是阿尔茨海默症病(Alzheimer disease, AD)重要的风险因素。模型膜研究方法在该领域的应用和更新持续至今,但仍存在一些问题有待解决,例如,Aβ插膜后聚集状态与Aβ融合到脂质体膜聚集状态的差异,Aβ插膜后形成微通道的时间及与磷脂成分的关系等。本文试图解析这两个问题,同时,系统地总结出常用的和更新的模型膜研究方法,这些方法包括单层膜插膜及电镜样品的制备,脂质体制备方法的改进,脂质体膜上Aβ42经过高盐及酸清洗后的Western 印迹检测,ANTS-DPX研究脂质体泄漏等。研究结果显示：(1)胞外及膜内Aβ42单体与脂质体膜作用后的聚集状态存在差异,Aβ42单体插膜后更容易聚集成纤维,而膜内融合的Aβ42呈现寡聚体形式;(2) Sepharose CL-4B柱过滤比微型挤出器制备的脂质体更加均一分散;(3)Aβ42在膜上形成微通道很可能是一个缓慢的过程,且与脂质体的磷脂种类相关。这些方法为Aβ42与细胞膜的相互作用提供了实用的研究手段,同时也为其他膜蛋白质与细胞膜的相互作用提供了可以借鉴的办法。研究结果使β淀粉样蛋白代谢过程更加清晰。     

模型膜实验方法在β淀粉样蛋白与细胞膜间相互作用中的应用与改进

β淀粉样蛋白(amyloid β peptide,Aβ)与细胞膜间的相互作用很可能是阿尔茨海默症病(Alzheimer disease, AD)重要的风险因素。模型膜研究方法在该领域的应用和更新持续至今,但仍存在一些问题有待解决,例如,Aβ插膜后聚集状态与Aβ融合到脂质体膜聚集状态的差异,Aβ插膜后形成微通道的时间及与磷脂成分的关系等。本文试图解析这两个问题,同时,系统地总结出常用的和更新的模型膜研究方法,这些方法包括单层膜插膜及电镜样品的制备,脂质体制备方法的改进,脂质体膜上Aβ42经过高盐及酸清洗后的Western 印迹检测,ANTS-DPX研究脂质体泄漏等。研究结果显示：(1)胞外及膜内Aβ42单体与脂质体膜作用后的聚集状态存在差异,Aβ42单体插膜后更容易聚集成纤维,而膜内融合的Aβ42呈现寡聚体形式;(2) Sepharose CL-4B柱过滤比微型挤出器制备的脂质体更加均一分散;(3)Aβ42在膜上形成微通道很可能是一个缓慢的过程,且与脂质体的磷脂种类相关。这些方法为Aβ42与细胞膜的相互作用提供了实用的研究手段,同时也为其他膜蛋白质与细胞膜的相互作用提供了可以借鉴的办法。研究结果使β淀粉样蛋白代谢过程更加清晰。     

TGF-β1对Aβ1-42诱导海马神经元-小胶质细胞共培养体系中细胞因子表达和分泌的影响

目的：探讨在海马神经元和小胶质细胞共培养体系中转化生长因子-β1（TGF-β1）对β淀粉样肽1-42（Aβ_1-42）诱导的小胶质细胞激活表达和分泌细胞因子的影响。方法：将大鼠海马神经元和小胶质细胞进行共同培养,于共同培养后第5日,加入TGF-β1（5 or 20 ng/ml）,1 h后加入Aβ_1-42（5 μmol/L）,继续培养72 h后用于后续实验,Western blot法检测诱导型一氧化氮合酶（iNOS）的蛋白表达;Real-time PCR和ELISA法检测肿瘤坏死因子-α（TNF-α）、白介素-1β（IL-1β）和胰岛素样生长因子（IGF-1）的mRNA表达和分泌。结果：在共同培养的海马神经元与小胶质细胞体系中,Aβ_1-42诱导炎症因子iNOS、TNF-α和IL-1β的表达和/或分泌上调,神经营养因子IGF-1表达下调,TGF-β1预处理削弱上述Aβ_1-42的作用。结论：TGF-β1明显抑制Aβ_1-42诱导的小胶质细胞激活引起的炎性细胞因子的增加和神经营养因子的减少。     

阿尔茨海默病中β淀粉样蛋白的生成及清除的调节

阿尔茨海默病（Alzheimer’s disease, AD）是一种慢性退行性神经系统疾病,临床主要表现为进行性认知能力下降、记忆力衰退、人格改变等。AD的标志性病理特征包括脑细胞外β淀粉样蛋白（β-amyloid protein,Aβ）沉积形成老年斑、细胞内神经纤维缠结(neurofibrillary tangles,NFT)、神经炎症增加以及神经元凋亡。β淀粉样蛋白主要在神经元产生,是淀粉样前体蛋白经过一系列酶解反应生成的由39～42个氨基酸组成的多肽,调节Aβ的生成和清除能够有效延缓甚至逆转阿尔茨海默病的进程,因而具有重大的研究价值。β-分泌酶（β-site APP cleaving enzyme 1,BACE1）为Aβ产生过程中的关键酶,其含量及活性的改变均能影响Aβ产生,在阿尔茨海默病的发生发展中发挥至关重要的作用;老年斑周围炎性细胞的聚集提示,AD与神经炎症高度相关,神经炎症相关细胞能够参与Aβ的清除,多种炎性因子也能调节Aβ的生成;非编码RNA虽很少直接参与Aβ的产生、沉积和清除,但其可以通过多种途径调节Aβ的产生。本文从β淀粉样蛋白生成及清除的机制着手,重点阐述了BACE1、神经炎症、非编码RNA对Aβ调控的重要作用,以期为AD发病机制的进一步研究提供思路,并对阿尔茨海默病早期干预及治疗提供理论参考。     

淀粉样蛋白Aβ的插膜作用可以抑制其形成纤维

作为老年性痴呆(AD)患者脑中淀粉样斑块的核心蛋白,β-淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)是从淀粉样前体蛋白(APP)水解而来。该蛋白是多种长度多肽的混合物,其中Aβ40和Aβ42是主要组分。分别研究了膜中胆固醇含量及溶液pH对Aβ40和Aβ42形成纤维的影响。电镜观察发现,含有胆固醇的脂质体几乎可以完全抑制Aβ40的纤维形成,而低pH只能部分地抑制Aβ42的纤维形成。单层膜的实验证明这两种因素都有利于Aβ40和Aβ42的插膜。构象研究表明插膜会诱导Aβ40和Aβ42的二级结构发生不同的变化。结果说明,Aβ40和Aβ42的插膜作用能够在一定程度上抑制蛋白形成纤维,但两者具有不同的抑制机制。     

二甲双胍降低肥胖大鼠海马内PPARγ、IDE表达伴随TNF-α和Aβ42表达上调

二甲双胍（metformin,MET）常用于肥胖胰岛素抵抗患者改善胰岛素抵抗降低血糖,但MET可增加脑内β-淀粉肽（β-amyloid,Aβ）表达,目前机制不清.Aβ沉积作为阿尔茨海默病（Alzheimer's disease, AD)始发病理生理学改变,在AD中发挥重要作用. 为研究MET对脑内Aβ表达的影响及机制,采用饮食诱导肥胖大鼠模型 （OB组）予MET灌胃4 W后（MET组）,观察海马内Aβ42及相关因子肿瘤坏死因子α （TNF-α）、过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体γ(peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, PPARγ)、胰岛素降解酶（insulin degrading enzyme, IDE）的表达. 结果显示,OB组大鼠血糖水平较对照组（CTL组）无明显差异,胰岛素含量明显升高（P<0.01), 并存在胰岛素抵抗;OB组大鼠海马内TNF-α、 Aβ42 水平较CTL组上调,PPARγ、IDE表达下降(P<0.05). MET组胰岛素及胰岛素抵抗均较OB组降低(P<0.05),海马内TNF-α、Aβ42表达增加(P<0.01);PPARγ,IDE表达较OB组减少(P<0.01). 上述结果提示,二甲双胍作为治疗肥胖胰岛素抵抗的一线用 药,可改善胰岛素抵抗,但增加海马内炎性因子TNF-α表达、减少PPARγ水平,降低其调控IDE转录作用,使IDE表达减少,伴随Aβ42降解减少沉积增加,从而可能增加AD发病风险.     

二维纳米材料抗β-淀粉样蛋白治疗阿尔茨海默病

阿尔茨海默病（Alzheimer’s disease, AD）是一种老年人群中高发的进行性神经退行性疾病。β-淀粉样蛋白（β-amyloid,Aβ）假说是目前科学界广泛支持的AD发病机制。清除Aβ、阻止Aβ聚集和解聚Aβ纤维的策略有望给AD的治疗提供有效途径。然而,目前已报道的抗Aβ治疗AD的药物存在的诸多缺点,限制了其临床应用。随着纳米技术的飞速发展,二维纳米材料在医学上的应用逐渐受到研究人员的关注。二维纳米材料不仅理化特性优异,而且生物相容性良好,还易于穿越细胞膜及血脑屏障。近年来研究发现,多种二维纳米材料能通过分子间相互作用力、近红外光热效应、光催化氧化、Cu2 +螯合以及药物负载等机制来抑制Aβ聚集,或使Aβ纤维解聚,在治疗AD方面有着很大的潜力。本文将围绕石墨烯和类石墨烯二维纳米材料,例如二硫化钼、石墨相氮化碳、黑磷等用于抗Aβ治疗AD方面的研究进行综述。     

谷氧还蛋白rbGrx可延缓CL4176秀丽隐杆线虫中β淀粉样蛋白诱导的毒性

阿尔茨海默病（Alzheimer’s disease,AD）是一种与衰老相关的神经退行性疾病,其中β-淀粉样蛋白（β-amyloid,Aβ）诱导的细胞毒性被认为是其发病的主要原因。本文以Aβ转基因秀丽隐杆线虫CL4176为模型,研究了重组荞麦谷氧还蛋白（recombinant buckwheat glutaredoxin, rbGrx）对Aβ诱导的毒性和氧化应激的影响。结果显示,4 μmol/L rbGrx可以延长CL4176线虫平均寿命达20%左右,并增加衰老虫体运动能力约43.6%,延迟产卵高峰期1 d,同时可以有效延缓Aβ毒性诱导的瘫痪表型。进一步研究发现,在正常条件和Aβ诱导毒性时,rbGrx均能降低CL4176线虫体内活性氧（reactive oxygen species,ROS）水平,并上调SOD活性和GSH含量。另外,rbGrx下调Aβ mRNA水平44.1％,减少Aβ沉积量,并且明显上调热激因子1 hsf-1（2.01倍）和hsp-16.2（2.65倍）mRNA表达水平。这表明,rbGrx通过降低CL4176线虫体内的ROS水平和上调热激蛋白质的转录表达水平,降低CL4176秀丽隐杆线虫中Aβ诱导的毒性。结果提示,rbGrx可能具有预防AD的潜力。     

不同佐剂条件下Aβ多肽B细胞表位疫苗诱导产生抗体的免疫反应特性分析

目的:研究阿尔茨海默病β淀粉样肽(Aβ)B细胞表位疫苗2Aβ1-15-PADRE(Aβ-T)诱导产生抗体的免疫反应特性,并探讨不同佐剂对该疫苗免疫反应效果的影响。方法:合成了含2个Aβ42的 B细胞表位—Aβ1-15及1个辅助T细胞表位—PADRE的多肽2Aβ1-15-PADRE。采用Al(OH)₃佐剂,弗氏佐剂,Abisco佐剂,MF59佐剂分别与多肽疫苗联合免疫小鼠,并另设3个对照组:无佐剂多肽免疫组(Mock),PBS免疫组(PBS),未免疫组(Native)。结果:5组多肽免疫组小鼠均产生了针对Aβ的特异性抗体,无佐剂多肽免疫组的IgG抗体滴度最低,Al(OH)₃佐剂组,MF59佐剂组,Abisco佐剂组小鼠IgG抗体滴度较高,弗氏佐剂组IgG抗体滴度最高。斑点杂交实验结果显示5组小鼠免疫后血清与Aβ42单体反应较弱,与寡聚体反应最明显,与纤维状Aβ42几乎不反应。结论:4种佐剂均能提高多肽疫苗的免疫反应,产生高水平抗Aβ的特异性抗体。5组免疫小鼠产生的抗体均与Aβ寡聚体反应较强,与纤维状Aβ42反应较弱,表明该多肽疫苗具有良好的应用前景。     

Dissecting the behaviour of β‐amyloid peptide variants during oligomerization and fibrillation

The oligomerization and fibrillation of β‐amyloid (Aβ) peptides are important events in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. However, the motifs within the Aβ sequence that contribute to oligomerization and fibrillation and the complex interplay among these short motifs are unclear. In this study, the oligomerization and fibrillation abilities of the Aβ variants Aβ1–28, Aβ1–36, Aβ11–42, Aβ17–42, Aβ1–40 and Aβ1–42 were examined by thioflavin T fluorescence, western blotting and transmission electron microscopy. Compared with two C‐terminal‐truncated peptides (i.e. Aβ1–28 and Aβ1–36), Aβ11–42, Aβ17–42 and Aβ1–42 had stronger abilities to form oligomers. This indicated that amino acids 37–42 strengthen the β‐hairpin structure of Aβ. Both Aβ1–42 and Aβ1–40 could form fibres, but Aβ17–42 formed irregular fibres, suggesting that amino acids 1–17 were essential for Aβ fibre formation. Aβ1–28 and Aβ1–36 exhibited weak oligomerization and fibrillation, implying that they formed an unstable β‐hairpin structure owing to the incomplete C‐terminal region. Intermediate peptides were likely to form a stable structure, consistent with previous results. This work explains the roles and interplay among motifs within Aβ during oligomerization and fibrillation. Copyright © 2017 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Intra-membrane oligomerization and extra-membrane oligomerization of amyloid-β peptide are competing processes as a result of distinct patterns of motif interplay

Soluble oligomers of amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) are emerging as the primary neurotoxic species in Alzheimer disease, however, whether the membrane is among their direct targets that mediate the downstream adverse effects remains elusive. Herein, we show that multiple soluble oligomeric Aβ preparations, including Aβ-derived diffusible ligand, protofibril, and zinc-induced Aβ oligomer, exhibit much weaker capability to insert into the membrane than Aβ monomer. Aβ monomers prefer incorporating into membrane rather than oligomerizing in solution, and such preference can be reversed by the aggregation-boosting factor, zinc ion. Further analyses indicate that the membrane-embedded oligomers of Aβ are derived from rapid assembly of inserted monomers but not due to the insertion of soluble Aβ oligomers. By comparing the behavior of a panel of Aβ truncation variants, we demonstrate that the intra- and extra-membrane oligomerization are mutually exclusive processes that proceed through distinct motif interplay, both of which require the action of amino acids 37-40/42 to overcome the auto-inhibitory interaction between amino acids 29-36 and the N-terminal portion albeit via different mechanisms. These results indicate that intra- and extra-membrane oligomerization of Aβ are competing processes and emphasize a critical regulation of membrane on the behavior of Aβ monomer and soluble oligomers, which may determine distinct neurotoxic mechanisms.     

YidC-mediated membrane insertion of assembly mutants of subunit c of the F1F0 ATPase

YidC is a member of the OxaI family of membrane proteins that has been implicated in the membrane insertion of inner membrane proteins in Escherichia coli. We have recently demonstrated that proteoliposomes containing only YidC support both the stable membrane insertion and the oligomerization of the c subunit of the F(1)F(0) ATP synthase (F(0)c). Here we have shown that two mutants of F(0)c unable to form a functional F(1)F(0) ATPase interact with YidC, require YidC for membrane insertion, but fail to oligomerize. These data show that oligomerization is not essential for the stable YidC-dependent membrane insertion of F(0)c consistent with a function of YidC as a membrane protein insertase.     

Ionic Interactions Promote Transmembrane Helix-Helix Association Depending on Sequence Context

Folding and oligomerization of integral membrane proteins frequently depend on specific interactions of transmembrane helices. Interacting amino acids of helix-helix interfaces may form complex motifs and exert different types of molecular forces. Here, a set of strongly self-interacting transmembrane domains (TMDs), as isolated from a combinatorial library, was found to contain basic and acidic residues, in combination with polar nonionizable amino acids and C-terminal GxxxG motifs. Mutational analyses of selected sequences and reconstruction of high-affinity interfaces confirmed the cooperation of these residues in homotypic interactions. Probing heterotypic interaction indicated the presence of interhelical charge-charge interactions. Furthermore, simple motifs of an ionizable residue and GxxxG are significantly overrepresented in natural TMDs, and a specific combination of these motifs exhibits high-affinity heterotypic interaction. We conclude that intramembrane charge-charge interactions depend on sequence context. Moreover, they appear important for homotypic and heterotypic interactions of numerous natural TMDs.     

The hydrophobic amino-terminal sequence of bovine 17 alpha-hydroxylase is required for the expression of a functional hemoprotein in COS 1 cells

The endoplasmic reticulum is a major site of localization for eukaryotic cytochrome P-450 mixed-function oxidase complexes. Previous studies have shown that the microsomal forms of P-450 insert into the membrane via their hydrophobic amino terminus through the signal recognition particle-dependent pathway. We have examined the insertion of bovine 17 alpha-hydroxylase (P45017 alpha) into the endoplasmic reticulum of COS 1 cells to evaluate the functional role of its hydrophobic amino-terminal sequence and membrane insertion. An NH2-terminal truncated protein, P450 delta 2-17, which lacked amino acids 2-17 was expressed in COS 1 cells, subcellular fractions were isolated, and P450 delta 2-17 was localized by immunoblot analysis. Compared to the full-length P45017 alpha, the NH2-terminal truncation resulted in a 2.5-fold decrease in P45017 alpha protein recovered with the microsomal fraction, 50% of which was an integral membrane protein as defined by resistance to Na2CO3 extraction. Despite correct membrane localization, P450 delta 2-17 was not a functional enzyme in COS 1 cells. A CO difference spectrum of microsomes containing P450 delta 2-17 did not give a typical 450 nm absorbance. We conclude that the hydrophobic amino terminus is required for the expression of a functionally competent P45017 alpha in COS 1 cells and suggest that the insertion of the amino terminus into the membrane is necessary for the folding of this protein into its correct structural form.