ACUTE DIE-BACK OF CLOVE TREES IN THE ZANZIBAR PROTECTORATE

The most widespread die-back of clove trees ( Eugenia aromatica) in the Zanzibar Protectorate is caused by Cryptosporella eugeniae sp.nov. The most noticeable symptom is the death of a branch or a portion of a branch, or, in young saplings, of the entire tree; in mature trees infection eventually leads to the semi-moribund trees now common in almost every clove plantation. The fungus invariably enters through a wound, most often one resulting from harvest damage. Pycnidia, and later perithecia, develop near the point of entry. Internally the infected wood is clearly distinguishable from the healthy by a dark red-brown stain.
Experimental infections that reproduce typical symptoms can rarely be caused in plants aged 18 to 36 months, and not at all in young seedlings. Experimental infection of older plants becomes more certain with increasing age, and with saplings of 7–10 years old failure is rare.
The prevalence of Cryptosporella die-back is almost entirely attributable to the destructive methods of harvesting now practised, combined with the presence of much infected material present in the plantations. Suggested control measures are based on the removal of old sources of infection and prevention of future damage, combined with remedial treatment where possible.     

STUDIES OF THE CLOVE TREE

Experimental grafting between cloves is very difficult with shoots, and so far has proved impossible with roots. Use has therefore been made of naturally occurring grafts in the study of sudden-death disease. Volunteer seedlings often grow up closely adpressed to old trees. If the old tree dies from sudden-death disease, the pole† usually survives, but occasionally it dies almost simultaneously with the old tree. The poles discussed invariably had an independent root system, but those which died were found to have their roots grafted to those of the old tree whilst poles which survived, although closely adpressed to the old tree, had no organic connexion with it. These observations cannot be reconciled with any but a pathogenic hypothesis as to the nature of the sudden-death disease.     

Date of onset of regrowth dieback and its relation to summer drought in eucalypt forest of southern Tasmania

'Regrowth dieback', a disease of Eucalyptus obliqua and E. regnans is causing serious degradation of high yield, even-aged, regrowth forest in south-eastern Tasmania. Dieback symptoms in crowns of diseased trees were first observed in the region in 1964 and since then the disease has continued to develop. Visual symptoms of the disease can be discerned only in crowns of dominant and co-dominant trees since sub-dominant and suppressed trees show similar symptoms due to normal stand competition. This work shows that for increment periods which finished in 1958 or earlier, basal area increments of dominant and co-dominant trees from a number of growth plots in the region were slightly lower in trees which were affected by the disease in 1971 than in those which were not. There were much larger reductions in increments of affected trees measured in increment periods which finished in 1960 or later. It was concluded that an agent very damaging to forest health appeared in the region in 1959 or early 1960. This coincides with the start of a period of several years of unusually dry summers in the region. These findings conform with an earlier suggestion that the disease may have been initiated by drought with secondary damage by the root-rotting fungus Armillaria sp. and/or the defoliating beetle Chrysophtharta bimaculata . The fungus is ubiquitous in the region and has frequently been associated with decayed roots of affected trees. The beetle is believed to have caused episodic tree defoliation in the region. It is suggested that the secondary agents normally cause death or ill-health of a few trees in otherwise healthy forest. Physiological weakening of trees by drought may have allowed the effects of these agents to increase substantially after 1959.     

帽儿山天然次生林内主要木本植物空间格局及更新特点

基于帽儿山次生林1 hm²样地的调查数据,将林分分为幼苗(树高H<30 cm)、幼树(H在30～130 cm或H>130 cm同时胸径DBH<5 cm)、中树(DBH 5～10 cm)、大树(DBH≥10 cm)4个大小级,运用O-ring点格局分析方法,分析帽儿山地区次生林内主要木本植物整体及树种人工补植红松、三大硬阔(水曲柳、胡桃楸、黄菠萝),以及榆树的各大小级空间格局及其关联性,探讨该地区次生林更新演替动向,为该地区森林的可持续经营提供依据.结果表明: 样地内更新幼苗2894株·hm^-2,幼树3337株·hm^-2,林分整体更新情况一般.对林分整体而言,幼苗分别与大树、中树和幼树在0～25 m、0～15 m、0～40 m的空间尺度上呈显著正相关,而在其余尺度上均呈显著负相关;幼树与大树、中树分别在0～15 m、0～25 m空间尺度上呈显著正相关,而在其余尺度上无显著关联;大树与中树则在所有尺度上均无相关性.对林分内优势树种而言,红松大树与幼树在所有尺度上主要呈负相关,而三大硬阔、榆树大树与幼树均以不相关为主.人工补植红松幼树与三大硬阔及榆树的各大小级在研究尺度上表现为以负相关为主,三大硬阔和榆树幼树与其他优势种各大小级只在20 m尺度内呈现负相关;三者两两之间在中树及大树阶段在20 m以上的尺度均不相关.帽儿山天然次生林还处于演替的进程当中,在今后的森林资源管理过程中,应当采取积极的人工干预措施促进林分更新,并适时对不合理的空间格局进行调整.     

Positive and negative effects of grass,cattle, and wild herbivores on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acacia</Emphasis> saplings in an East African savanna

Plant–plant interactions can be a complex mixture of positive and negative interactions, with the net outcome depending on abiotic and community contexts. In savanna systems, the effects of large herbivores on tree–grass interactions have rarely been studied experimentally, though these herbivores are major players in these systems. In African savannas, trees often become more abundant under heavy cattle grazing but less abundant in wildlife preserves. Woody encroachment where cattle have replaced wild herbivores may be caused by a shift in the competitive balance between trees and grasses. Here we report the results of an experiment designed to quantify the positive, negative, and net effects of grasses, wild herbivores, and cattle on Acacia saplings in a Kenyan savanna. Acacia drepanolobium saplings under four long-term herbivore regimes (wild herbivores, cattle, cattle + wild herbivores, and no large herbivores) were cleared of surrounding grass or left with the surrounding grass intact. After two years, grass-removal saplings exhibited 86% more browse damage than control saplings, suggesting that grass benefited saplings by protecting them from herbivory. However, the negative effect of grass on saplings was far greater; grass-removal trees accrued more than twice the total stem length of control trees. Where wild herbivores were present, saplings were browsed more and produced more new stem growth. Thus, the net effect of wild herbivores was positive, possibly due to the indirect effects of lower competitor tree density in areas accessible to elephants. Additionally, colonization of saplings by symbiotic ants tracked growth patterns, and colonized saplings experienced lower rates of browse damage. These results suggest that savanna tree growth and woody encroachment cannot be predicted by grass cover or herbivore type alone. Rather, tree growth appears to depend on a variety of factors that may be acting together or antagonistically at different stages of the tree’s life cycle.     

Recovery of Plant Species Richness and Composition in an Abandoned Forest Settlement Area in Kenya

Cultivation of annual crops in the initial stage of reforestation has been commonly practiced in the tropics. In recent decades, however, cultivation of such areas has been discontinued, resulting in widespread abandoned settlements. In this article we used a former forest village settlement in Kenya, which had been cleared, cultivated and then abandoned, to study how natural vegetation recovers after such disturbances. Species richness, abundance, and composition of tree seedlings, saplings, adult trees, shrubs, and herbs were recorded in different zones, from a heavily degraded zone in the center of the settlement, through less disturbed transition zones (TZs), and in the surrounding secondary forest (SF). Species richness and abundance of tree seedlings, saplings, and adult trees increased gradually from the heavily degraded zone to the SF, whereas shrub and herb richness were the same for TZs and SF and abundance was lowest in the SF. Total species richness was highest in the SF. Some pioneer tree species were highly associated with the TZs, whereas sub‐canopy tree species were associated with the SF. A group of tree species were not particularly associated with any of the four zones. Thus, these species might have good potential as restoration species. The results of our study contribute to the knowledge of natural regeneration in general, and of individual species characterizing the different stages of recovery of abandoned settlements in particular. Such information is urgently needed in designing ecologically sound management strategies for restoring abandoned forest settlements in tropical areas.     

Phylogenetic Structure of Tree Species across Different Life Stages from Seedlings to Canopy Trees in a Subtropical Evergreen Broad-Leaved Forest

Investigating patterns of phylogenetic structure across different life stages of tree species in forests is crucial to understanding forest community assembly, and investigating forest gap influence on the phylogenetic structure of forest regeneration is necessary for understanding forest community assembly. Here, we examine the phylogenetic structure of tree species across life stages from seedlings to canopy trees, as well as forest gap influence on the phylogenetic structure of forest regeneration in a forest of the subtropical region in China. We investigate changes in phylogenetic relatedness (measured as NRI) of tree species from seedlings, saplings, treelets to canopy trees; we compare the phylogenetic turnover (measured as β_NRI) between canopy trees and seedlings in forest understory with that between canopy trees and seedlings in forest gaps. We found that phylogenetic relatedness generally increases from seedlings through saplings and treelets up to canopy trees, and that phylogenetic relatedness does not differ between seedlings in forest understory and those in forest gaps, but phylogenetic turnover between canopy trees and seedlings in forest understory is lower than that between canopy trees and seedlings in forest gaps. We conclude that tree species tend to be more closely related from seedling to canopy layers, and that forest gaps alter the seedling phylogenetic turnover of the studied forest. It is likely that the increasing trend of phylogenetic clustering as tree stem size increases observed in this subtropical forest is primarily driven by abiotic filtering processes, which select a set of closely related evergreen broad-leaved tree species whose regeneration has adapted to the closed canopy environments of the subtropical forest developed under the regional monsoon climate.     

Environmental Correlates of Tree and Seedling–Sapling Distributions in a Mexican Tropical Dry Forest

Bray and Curtis ordination was used to explore which environmental variables explained importance values and the presence–absence of tropical tree seedlings, saplings and adults in La Escondida-La Cabaña, Sierra de Manantlán, Jalisco, Mexico. The diameters of trees ≥2.5 cm DBH and the presence and height of seedlings and saplings were measured in nine 0.1 ha sites. Four matrices including presence–absence data and importance value indices for trees and seedlings and saplings were analyzed through Bray and Curtis ordination. The matrices were based on density, frequency, and dominance of adult trees as well as seedlings and saplings. The environmental matrix consisted of 18 variables, including elevation, slope, canopy gaps, disturbance, and soil variables. We recorded 63 tree species and 38 seedling and sapling species in the nine sites. The ordination explained 70.9% of the variation in importance value data for trees and 62.6% for seedlings and saplings. The variation explained in presence–absence data for trees was 67.1 and 77.4% for seedlings and saplings. The variance in the ordination axes of seedlings and sapling presence–absence data was poorly explained by the number of gaps in the tree, shrub, or herb layer, suggesting little light specialization by seedlings and saplings. Habitat specialization for soil nutrients appears to be important in explaining the presence–absence of seedlings and saplings. Seedling and sapling specialization along different soil microsites could promote species coexistence in this forest, while heterogeneity in light conditions may instead determine differences in growth and, thus, importance value of trees. We hypothesize that in tropical dry forest in Jalisco, Mexico, a habitat specialization for soil resources is likely more importance at early stages in tree life histories than in later life history.     

Application of the Functional-Structural Tree Model LIGNUM to Sugar Maple Saplings (Acer saccharum Marsh) Growing in Forest Gaps

LIGNUM is a functional-structural model that represents a treeusing four modelling units which closely resemble the real structureof trees: tree segments, tree axes, branching points and buds.Metabolic processes are explicitly related to the structuralunits in which they take place. Here we adapt earlier versionsof LIGNUM designed to model growth of conifers for use withbroad-leaved trees. Two primary changes are involved. First,the tree segment for broad-leaved trees consists of enclosedcylinders of heartwood, sapwood and bark. Leaves consistingof petioles and blades are attached to the segments. Secondly,axillary buds and rules governing their dormancy are includedin the model. This modified version of LIGNUM is used to simulatethe growth and form of sugar maple saplings in forest gaps.The annual growth of the model tree is driven by net productionafter respiration losses are taken into account. The productionrate of each leaf depends on the amount of photosyntheticallyactive radiation it receives. The radiation regime is trackedexplicitly in different parts of the tree crown using a modelof mutual shading of the leaves. Forest gaps are representedby changing the radiation intensity in different parts of themodel sky. This version of LIGNUM modified for use with broad-leaf,deciduous trees and parameterized for sugar maple, yields goodsimulations of growth and form in saplings from different forestgap environments. Copyright 2001 Annals of Botany Company LIGNUM, functional-structural tree model, tree architecture, sugar maple, modelling growth and form     

Herbivore attack in Casearia nitida influenced by plant ontogenetic variation in foliage quality and plant architecture

Traits influencing plant quality as food and/or shelter for herbivores may change during plant ontogeny, and as a consequence, influence the amount of herbivory that plants receive as they develop. In this study, differences in herbivore density and herbivory were evaluated for two ontogenetic stages of the tropical tree Casearia nitida. To assess plant ontogenetic differences in foliage quality as food for herbivores, nutritional and defensive traits were evaluated in saplings and reproductive trees. Predatory arthropods were quantified and the foraging preferences of a parasitoid wasp of the genus Zacremnops were assessed. In addition, survival rates of lepidopteran herbivores (Geometridae) were evaluated experimentally. Herbivore density was three times higher and herbivory was 66% greater in saplings than in reproductive trees. Accordingly, concentrations of total foliar phenolics were higher in reproductive trees than in saplings, whereas leaf toughness, water and nitrogen concentration did not vary between ontogenetic stages. Survival rates of lepidopteran larvae exposed to natural enemies were equivalent in reproductive trees and saplings. Given the greater herbivore density on saplings, equal survival rates implied a greater foraging effort of predators on reproductive trees. Furthermore, observed foraging of parasitoid wasps was restricted to reproductive trees. I propose that herbivore density, and as a consequence, leaf damage were lower in reproductive trees than in saplings due to both traits influencing food quality, and architectural or unmeasured indirect defensive traits influencing foraging preference of natural enemies of herbivores.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Trichoderma harzianum</Emphasis> Rifai 1295-22 Mediates Growth Promotion of Crack Willow (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Salix fragilis</Emphasis>) Saplings in Both Clean and Metal-Contaminated Soil

We investigated if the plant growth promoting fungus Trichoderma harzianum Rifai 1295-22 (also known as “T22”) could be used to enhance the establishment and growth of crack willow (Salix fragilis) in a soil containing no organic or metal pollutants and in a metal-contaminated soil by comparing this fungus with noninoculated controls and an ectomycorrhizal formulation commercially used to enhance the establishment of tree saplings. Crack willow saplings were grown in a temperature-controlled growth room over a period of 5 weeks’ in a garden center topsoil and over 12 weeks in a soil which had been used for disposal of building materials and sewage sludge containing elevated levels of heavy metals including cadmium (30 mg kg⁻¹), lead (350 mg kg⁻¹), manganese (210 mg kg⁻¹), nickel (210 mg kg⁻¹), and zinc (1,100 mg kg⁻¹). After 5 weeks’ growth in clean soil, saplings grown with T. harzianum T22 produced shoots and roots that were 40% longer than those of the controls and shoots that were 20% longer than those of saplings grown with ectomycorrhiza (ECM). T. harzianum T22 saplings produced more than double the dry biomass of controls and more than 50% extra biomass than the ECM-treated saplings. After 12 weeks’ growth, saplings grown with T. harzianum T22 in the metal-contaminated soil produced 39% more dry weight biomass and were 16% taller than the noninoculated controls. This is the first report of tree growth stimulation by application of Trichoderma to roots, and is especially important as willow is a major source of wood fuel in the quest for renewable energy. These results also suggest willow trees inoculated with T. harzianum T22 could be used to increase the rate of revegetation and phytostabilization of metal-contaminated sites, a property of the fungus never previously demonstrated.     

Root distribution at various distances from clove trees growing in Indonesia

Efficient fertilizer application requires an understanding of the distribution of roots and soil nutrients in the soil profile. Cultural practices for clove trees in Indonesia has resulted in phosphorus (P) fertilizer being applied at the canopy edge; however, in these high P fixing soils efficient P fertilizer application should occur with the highest root densities. The objective of this study, therefore, was to determine the rooting distribution at various distances from the tree and soil depths for clove (Eugenia aromatica OK; variety Zanzibar) trees growing on an Andosol soil at Modoinding, Indonesia. Root distributions were determined to a 100-cm soil depth using soil cores at 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 times the canopy radius for five 10-year-old clove trees grown on either level terrain or 23% slopes. Clove root length and weight densities decreased with soil depth and distance from the tree base. Fine clove roots (1 mm dia) comprised 72% of the total root length and was three to five times higher underneath the canopy than that outside the canopy. Roots were concentrated in the upper soil horizons; however, up to 36% of the total root length was found at a depth of 50–100 cm. Clove roots for trees growing at the level landscape position had the highest root length densities. Intercropped species root length densities were higher than clove root length densities at 1.5 times the canopy radius whereas intercropped root weight densities were higher than that for clove roots at both 1.5 and 1 times the canopy radius. Results suggest that fertilizer applications should be placed closer to the tree trunk rather than at the canopy edge to maximize P uptake by clove roots.     

Determinants of change in subtropical tree diameter growth with ontogenetic stage

We evaluated the degree to which relative growth rate (RGR) of saplings and large trees is related to seven functional traits that describe physiological behavior and soil environmental factors related to topography and fertility for 57 subtropical tree species in Dinghushan, China. The mean values of functional traits and soil environmental factors for each species that were related to RGR varied with ontogenetic stage. Sapling RGR showed greater relationships with functional traits than large-tree RGR, whereas large-tree RGR was more associated with soil environment than was sapling RGR. The strongest single predictors of RGR were wood density for saplings and slope aspect for large trees. The stepwise regression model for large trees accounted for a larger proportion of variability (R ² = 0.95) in RGR than the model for saplings (R ² = 0.55). Functional diversity analysis revealed that the process of habitat filtering likely contributes to the substantial changes in regulation of RGR as communities transition from saplings to large trees.     

青藏高原东缘岷江冷杉天然群落的种群结构和空间分布格局

 岷江冷杉(Abies faxoniana)是青藏高原东缘亚高山顶极森林植被的优势种之一,主要分布于岷江、大渡河和白龙江的上游地区。该文研究了岷江冷杉天然原始群落的种群结构和空间分布格局。样方大小为100 m ×60 m。测定了所有个体的坐标及其胸径、高度和冠幅。将岷江冷杉按大小级分为5级,即幼苗：H（高度）<0.33 m; 幼树: H≥0.33 m, 且 DBH（胸径）<2.5 cm; 小树: 2.5 cm≤DBH<7.5 cm; 中树: 7.5 cm≤DBH <22.5 cm和大树: DBH≥22.5 cm。采用了Morisita 指数 (Iδ)、方差均值比 (V/m), 聚块度指标(m*/m)和空间点格局分析方法 (SPPA) (采用了Ripley二次分析法)4种方法分析岷江冷杉的空间分布格局。结果表明： 1) 岷江冷杉种群结构稳定。因为其年龄结构表现为增长型, 幼苗幼树储备丰富,密度分别为2 217·hm-2和2 683·hm-2,可见岷江冷杉天然更新良好,进而通过其“移动镶嵌循环”更新维持其种群的稳定性。在大小级结构图中的一些缺刻和年龄结构图中的“断代”现象,是干扰的时空异质性在采样的时间和空间断面上的反映。 2) 幼苗、幼树和小树在所有的研究尺度（从 1 m×1m 到 30 m×30 m）下都呈聚集分布。但中树和大树基本上呈随机分布。3) 聚集强度随尺度的变化而变化。上述的前3种方法表明,聚集强度随尺度的增加而减弱。但是,空间点格局分析法表明,岷江冷杉幼苗、幼树和小树的聚集强度首先随尺度的增加而增强,达到一定高峰后,随尺度的增加而减弱。 4) 岷江冷杉的空间分布格局是它与其自然环境长期作用的结果,同时也反映了其种群天然更新的格局和机制。 5) 4种分析方法对格局的判别基本一致, 但空间点格局分析法更能反映出格局强度随尺度的变化的关系,是值得推荐的一种分析空间分布格局的方法。使用空间点格局分析法的限制主要在于其计算和采样比较复杂。另外,由于Ripley 二次分析法对于“空白”的探测不敏感,需要进一步做一些方法上的改进。     

Restoration of threatened species: a noble cause for transgenic trees

Some of the first applications of transgenic trees in North America may be for the conservation or restoration of threatened forest trees that have been devastated by fungal pathogens or insect pests. In some cases, where resistance has yet to be found in the natural population of a tree species, incorporating genes from other organisms may offer the only hope for restoration. In others, transgenics may play a role as part of an integrated approach, along with conventional breeding or biocontrol agents. American chestnut (Castanea dentata) was wiped out as a canopy species by a fungal disease accidentally introduced into the United States around 1900. Similarly, American elm (Ulmus americana) virtually disappeared as a favored street tree from Northeastern U.S. cities after the introduction of the Dutch elm disease fungus in the 1940s. In both cases, progress has been made toward restoration via conventional techniques such as selection and propagation of tolerant cultivars (American elm) or breeding with a related resistant species (American chestnut). Recently, progress has also been made with development of systems for engineering antifungal candidate genes into these “heritage trees.” An Agrobacterium-leaf disk system has been used to produce transgenic American elm trees engineered with an antimicrobial peptide gene that may enhance resistance to Dutch elm disease. Two gene transfer systems have been developed for American chestnut using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of embryogenic cultures, setting the stage for the first tests of potential antifungal genes for their ability to confer resistance to the chestnut blight fungus. Despite the promise of transgenic approaches for restoration of these heritage trees, a number of technical, environmental, economic, and ethical questions remain to be addressed before such trees can be deployed, and the debate around these questions may be quite different from that associated with transgenic trees developed for other purposes.     

江西九连山亚热带常绿阔叶林优势种空间分布格局

于江西九连山国家自然保护区设置4 hm2亚热带常绿阔叶林固定监测样地,用样方法对亚热带常绿阔叶林进行调查分析。应用点格局方法分析生境异质性是否影响树木分布并分析优势种红钩栲(Castanopsis lamontii)、米槠(Castanopsis carlesii)、罗浮柿(Diospyros morrisiana)和细枝柃(Eurya loquaiana)分布格局,对比存在生境异质性和排除生境异质性两种情况下优势树种不同生长阶段(幼树、小树、成年树)的空间分布格局以及不同生长阶段之间的空间关联性,探讨生境异质性之外的其它种群分布影响因子。结果表明:1)生境异质性效应显著影响九连山树木分布,4个优势树种在大尺度上存在明显的生境偏好;2)用完全随机零模型不排除生境异质性时,4个优势种总体及其不同生长阶段在0—30 m所有尺度上主要呈现聚集分布;3)用异质性随机零模型排除生境异质性后,4个优势种及其不同生长阶段的聚集程度显著下降,只在小尺度上(0—5 m)呈现聚集分布;4)4个优势种的幼树与小树均表现显著的正相关。红钩栲的成年树与幼树及成年树与小树总体表现不相关。米槠的成年树与幼树总体以无相关为主;成年树与小树之间总体呈正相关。小乔木罗浮柿的成年树与幼树之间在小尺度上(0—5 m)表现负相关或无相关,在较大尺度范围上总体表现正相关关系;小树与成年树在研究尺度上表现出正相关。灌木细枝柃的成年树与幼树,成年树与小树及小树与幼树之间在研究尺度范围内均呈现正相关关系;5)研究发现九连山优势乔木物种通过密度制约和Janzen-Connell效应释放空间,为其他物种共存提供条件,而优势灌木物种细枝柃没有表现出这两个效应。     

Population structure of the tree Peltogyne purpurea (Cesalpinaceae) in an altered forest at Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica

The regeneration of the rain forest tree Peltogyne purpururea Pittier after selective logging was studied in Mogos, Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica. The distribution of all adult trees of P. purpurea according to diameter at breath height (dbh) categories revealed that the distribution of the adult trees followed a bell-shaped curve. The largest number of individuals was found in the 70 to 80 cm dbh category. We did not find any significant differences in the distribution of saplings around seed-producing trees. There were similar numbers of saplings in the four transects established around each reproductive tree following the four cardinal directions. Overall, the majority of the saplings were found in the first meters around each seed-producing tree. There was another peak in the number of saplings at the distance where the crown of the tree ended. Logging can negatively affect the regeneration of P. purpurea.     

ITS序列结合培养特征鉴定梨树腐烂病菌

对采自中国4个省份的9个梨树腐烂病菌分离株和7个苹果树腐烂病菌分离株的ITS序列进行了测定和分析,并结合GenBank的有性型Valsa ceratosperma、V.ambiens和V.mali的ITS序列构建了系统发育树。结果表明梨和苹果树的各分离株在ITS核苷酸序列上分化较小(p-distance=1.55%),均在V.ceratosperma聚类组,但二者又分别处于两个独立小分支。其与V.ambiens和V.mali处在不同的聚类组中,且亲缘关系较远,表明供试梨树腐烂病菌并非V.ambiens。培养性状和生物学特点的研究结果还发现,梨树腐烂病菌各分离株无论在菌落颜色、产孢特点、还是37℃高温的生长情况都和苹果腐烂病菌有一定差别。前者菌落始在PDA终为乳白色,而后者菌落初为白色后期变褐色;在20%ABA上,前者形成的产孢体较大而数量较少,在37℃高温下能正常生长,后者则形成的产孢体较小而数量较多,在37℃高温下不能正常生长。并未发现二者在子实体上有稳定明显的差异。因而表明梨树腐烂病菌应为V.ceratosperma,但可用培养性状和生物学特点进行区分其和苹果树腐烂病菌。     

EXPERIMENTS ON SPRAYING WITH DDT TO PREVENT THE FEEDING OF SCOLYTUS BEETLES ON ELM AND CONSEQUENT INFECTION WITH CERATOSTOMELLA ULMI

Experiments were done for three years on street elms at Folkestone and Aldenham to repeat American work on the use of insecticidal sprays to prevent feeding by Scolytus beetles, which carry Ceratostomella ulmi , the cause of elm disease. Although the fungus can remain alive in the older annual rings of an infected tree, active disease usually results from fungus freshly introduced by Scolytus. Thus spraying is of value on infected, as well as uninfected elms.
The results of the experiments supported American conclusions that DDT was superior to benzene hexachloride. A 1.5% solution of DDT in miscible oil gave reasonably good, but not perfect, control, and was much superior to solutions made from DDT in the form of a dispersible powder.
Spraying of trees 20–30 ft. high cost over £1 per tree per year, which is considered prohibitive, except for small trees of special amenity or sentimental value.