Historical development and geographical distribution of giant deer (Cervidae,Megacerini)

The origin, trends in adaptatiogenesis and ecogenesis of megacerines reviewed. The major phylogenetic lineages are described, the main evolutionary events are dated and compared with changes in environments. It is shown that the major evolutionary changes in megacerines developed against a background of considerable changes in environments, which corresponded to global climatic and great regional landscape-climatic events.     

Elastic properties of the feet of deer (Cervidae)

Dynamic tests have been performed on the feet of deer, and on tendons removed from the feet, to determine their elastic properties. The results have been used to calculate the strain energy stored in each foot while it is on the ground in a fast galloping stride. This is compared with an estimate of the work done by the leg, and the energy-saving rle of tendon elasticity is assessed.     

Molecular phylogeny of deer (Cervidae: Artiodactyla)

Sequences of mitochondrial genes 12S and 16S rRNA (2 445 bp) and the region of the nuclear beta-spectrin gene (828 bp) were analyzed in members of the family Cervidae and in other artiodactyls. Several molecular synapomorphies characteristic both of Cervidae and musk deer have been found. According to our data, Cervidae is a sister clade to Bovidae, which are very close to Moschidae. The family Giraffidae is exterior to this common clade, while Antilocapridae occupies a more basal position. The family Cervidae proper splits into three clades including the genera Cervus and Muntiacus (1), Capreolus, Hydropotes, Alces (2), and Rangifer, Odocoileus, and the remaining genera (3). In general, our phylogenetic reconstructions conform to the results of earlier molecular genetic studies, but substantially differ from the traditional taxonomy of Ruminantia.     

Formation of the range of the Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus, Cervidae) and its present distribution in Yakutia

Data on the distribution of the Siberian roe deer in Yakutia in the past and at present are presented. The dynamics of the species range in the Holocene is considered. The ways of formation of the new range of Siberian roe deer in this region in the 20th century are analyzed. The structure of the range of this species in different ecological and geographical regions of Yakutia is discussed. Cases of occurrence of the Siberian roe deer in the subarctic zone are described.     

A cranial morphometric study of deer (Mammalia, Cervidae) from Argentina using three-dimensional landmarks

This study examines morphological variation in the crania (n = 70) of eight cervid species from Argentina. Forty 3-dimensional landmarks were acquired on each adult cervid cranium. The data were analysed using Morphologika software. The co-ordinates were registered and scaled to remove size differences by Procrustes analysis, and then principal components analysis was applied to examine shape variation. Shape variation associated with each principal component can be visualised in the program. The first principal component correlates strongly with the centroid size of the crania and also with the body mass and height of each species. The larger species were distinguished by relatively longer snouts and relatively smaller brains. The smallerMazama andPudu species cluster closely on the first as well as the other principal components. Among the larger species, the twoHippocamelus species, which live at higher altitudes, were clearly distinguished from the lowland species,Ozotoceros bezoarticus andBlastocerus dichotomus, on the basis of cranial flexion and the orientation of the occipital region. FinallyO. bezoarticus andB. dichotomus were compared directly and small differences were noted in the orbital region. The shape data was used to produce a distance matrix and a phenogram, which we relate to some of currently accepted phylogenetic relationships of this group of cervids.     

Development and characterization of microsatellite loci in the marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus Cervidae)

Marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus) is one of the most exposed large mammals in South America. To aid in the conservation management of the species, nine polymorphic microsatellite loci were isolated and tested on up to 50 animals, showing 3–12 alleles and expected heterozygosity values varying from 0.69 to 0.89. These markers should be of considerable utility in future population and ecological genetics studies of this species. The marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus) is the biggest South American species of deer. Originally distributed across a large part of South America, stretching from the south bank of the Amazon river to northern Argentina, significant wild populations are now restricted to the Pantanal, swamp-lands that cover about 40% of southwest Brazil. The marsh deer is listed as Vulnerable on the Red List of the IUCN. Three populations of the species from three areas in the Paraná River basin (between the states of São Paulo and Mato Grosso do Sul) were recently studied by observing protein polymorphism at 17 loci (Oliveira et al. 2005). Now we are presenting data about isolation of microsatellite markers to improve the results regarding population structure.     

Transferability of microsatellite loci from Cervidae species to the endangered Brazilian marsh deer, Blastocerus dichotomus

Blastocerus dichotomus, the marsh deer, is the largest Brazilian Cervidae species. The species is endangered because of hunting and loss of its natural habitat, i.e., flood plain areas, because of hydroelectric power station construction and agricultural land expansion. In the present study, we tested 38 microsatellite loci from four Cervidae species: Odocoileus virginianus (7), Rangifer tarandus (17), Capreolus capreolus (7), and Mazama bororo (7). Eleven loci showed clear amplification, opening a new perspective for the generation of fundamental population genetic data for devising conservation strategies for B. dichotomus.     

A new species of crown‐antlered deer Stephanocemas (Artiodactyla,Cervidae) from the middle Miocene of Qaidam Basin,northern Tibetan Plateau,China, and a preliminary evaluation of its phylogeny

Stephanocemas Colbert, 1939 is one of the earliest groups of deer (Cervidae) that shows indications of shedding their antlers, and as such, occupies a special position in the transition from nondeciduous to deciduous antlers in the evolution of cervids. Despite this basal position in cervid phylogeny, however, it has a highly peculiar, palmate antler morphology that is easily recognized in the fossil records of the early to middle Miocene of Eurasia. A new species, Stephanocemas palmatus sp. nov. , is described based on three partial antlers ranging from juvenile to full adult individuals, recently collected from the late middle Miocene Lower Youshashan Formation in the Qaidam Basin of northern Tibetan Plateau. Another indeterminate species (Stephanocemas sp.) of much smaller size and primitive characteristics is described from more fragmentary materials in strata lower than the level of S. palmatus but still middle Miocene in age. To the extent that it was possible, we also attempted to place into modern stratigraphical context historical collections of Stephanocemas from Qinghai Province that were obtained during the Sino‐Swedish Expeditions in the 1930s. These materials were described by Birger Bohlin in 1937 but their stratigraphical context has been in question ever since. A species‐level phylogeny suggests that S. palmatus is the most derived among known species, with its large size, great expansion of the palm part of the antler, and horizontally radiating tines. We recognize a Paradicrocerus clade that includes P. flerovi Gabuniya, 1959, P. elegantulus (Roger, 1898), and P. brevistephanos (Baschanov & Nurumov, 1955); the latter two were traditionally regarded as belonging to Stephanocemas. As a result, the Paradicrocerus clade is largely European and western Asian, whereas the restricted Stephanocemas is now Asiatic in geographical distribution. © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 156 , 680–695.     

Complete mitochondrial genome sequence of the Korean water deer Hydropotes inermis argyropus (Cervidae, Capreolinae)

The complete mitochondrial genome sequence of Hydropotes inermis argyropus consists of 13 protein-coding, 22 tRNA, and two rRNA genes, and 1 control region (CR). Three overlaps among the 13 protein-coding genes were found: ATP8/ATP6, ND4L/ND4, and ND5/ND6. The CR was located between the tRNA-Pro and tRNA-Phe genes and is 928 bp in length. The typical conserved domains, such as TAS and CSB, were identified in the CR.     

The role of hybridization in the karyotype evolution of deer (Cervidae; Artiodactyla; Mammalia)

Summary The karyotypes of 46 animals from a population ofCervus elaphus, Cervus nippon, and hybridsCervus elaphus xCervus nippon were studied using G- and C-banding techniques. It was found that four chromosome pairs known from the karyotype ofCervus elaphus are involved in two systems of Robertsonian translocations. Pedigree analysis supports the hypothesis of a simple Mendelian inheritance of each translocation system. With respect to these translocation systems, the population shows no significant deviation from the corresponding Hardy-Weinberg-structure. Thus, hybridization events can be accepted as a major factor in karyotype evolution of deer.     

A review of the species of Rhynchopsilopa Hendel from China (Diptera, Ephydridae)

Species of the shore-fly genus Rhynchopsilopa Hendel from China are reviewed. Four new species (Rhynchopsilopa guangdongensissp. n., Rhynchopsilopa huangkengensissp. n., Rhynchopsilopa jinxiuensissp. n., Rhynchopsilopa shixingensissp. n.) and two previously known species, Rhynchopsilopa longicornis (Okada) and Rhynchopsilopa magnicornis Hendel, are described or redescribed. A key to the species hitherto known from China is presented.     

Holocene distribution and extinction of the moose (Alces alces, Cervidae) in Central Europe

Moose (Alces alces L.) were among the first large mammals to recolonize Central Europe after the last glaciation. Already during the Allerød they established themselves in most parts of the area. In the early Holocene their distribution range extended from the Pyrenees to Denmark and from Austria to Great Britain and also covered eastern Central Europe where they still occur today. In the Preboreal, the moose slowly vanished from the southwestern parts of its distribution range, leading to its extinction in France and, later, in England. During the Atlantic period, the moose died out in large parts of Denmark and population densities apparently decreased in the rest of Central Europe as well. Around the birth of Christ only relict populations were left in western Central Europe, which finally became extinct in early medieval times. In Thuringia and in the region northeast of the river Elbe as well as in central Poland, some stocks persisted until the high and late Middle Ages. The causes of the gradual extinction in Central Europe during the Holocene are complex. Changes in vegetation, climate and sea-level, the increasing fragmentation of habitat through human activities and hunting were, at different times, important factors. In the recent past, however, moose have repeatedly migrated from the east towards the west. The development of its distribution range since the end of the Second World War as well as experiences with Scandinavian populations show that moose are able to thrive in close proximity to humans and that a future expansion of its distribution range towards the west seems possible.     

Genetic variability in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and its relationship to environmental parameters and herd origin (Cervidae)

Allozyme variation was examined in 1571 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from 29 localities in Tennessee by starch gel electrophoresis. For 11 polymorphic loci, sex-related, age-related and temporal differences were minimal. However, significant spatial hererogeneity was evident in genotypes (contingency table results), allele frequencies (F _ST=0.057) and heterozygosity. Heterozygosity ranged from 16.9% to 26.8% with a mean of 22.9%. The spatial pattern of allele frequencies determined from Rogers' coefficients of genetic similarity indicated associations based on geographic proximity and stocking history. In hierarchial analyses, physiographic regions accounted for more of the total gene diversity than herd origin groups (populations of similar origin) but less than individual populations. For five loci, physiographic regions accounted for more of the gene diversity than populations, suggesting a selection role in the observed genetic variability. Bivariate and canonical correlation analyses revealed significant associations between environmental and genetic variables. Temperature variables and allele frequencies for three loci (alcohol dehydrogenase, alpha-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase, sorbitol dehydrogenase) had the prominent roles in the multivariate association between environmental and genetic variables. Herd origin, gene flow and selection appear to be involved in the gene diversity in deer from Tennesee.     

A highly repetitive DNA component common to all Cervidae: its organization and chromosomal distribution during evolution

In recent work we have isolated and characterized a highly repetitive DNA (MMV satellite IA) from Muntiacus muntjak vaginalis, the species with the most reduced karyotype in the Cervidae family. We have now analysed the genomes of nine related species for the presence of MMV satellite IA components, and have determined their organization and chromosomal distribution. Repetitive satellite IA type DNA is present in all species of the Cervidae, and also in the bovine, but not in a species of the Tragulidae suggesting that these sequences were generated after the phylogenetic separation of Bovidae and Tragulidae. Studies on the organization of the satellite IA DNA in the various species revealed three main repeat lengths: 1400, 1000 and 807 bp. The relative proportion of satellite IA sequences present in any one of the three registers is strikingly different within the various species and can be correlated with the phylogeny of the Cervidae. The chromosomal locations of the satellite IA sequences were determined in seven species by in situ hybridization. It turned out that the chromosomal rearrangements leading to the reduction in the number of chromosomes during karyotype evolution have led to the elimination of satellite I DNA at most locations. In all tandem fusions, the satellite IA sequences located at the centromeres of the ancestral acrocentric chromosomes are lost. In contrast, during the centric fusion that generates the M. m. vaginalis X chromosome satellite IA sequences are amplified. Sequence motifs, which are known to be involved in recombinational events are present in the satellite IA and might have contributed to the unique karyotype variation in the Cervidae.