A framework for conceptualizing dimensions of social organization in mammals

Mammalian societies represent many different types of social systems. While some aspects of social systems have been extensively studied, there is little consensus on how to conceptualize social organization across species. Here, we present a framework describing eight dimensions of social organization to capture its diversity across mammalian societies. The framework uses simple information that is clearly separated from the three other aspects of social systems: social structure, care system, and mating system. By applying our framework across 208 species of all mammalian taxa, we find a rich multidimensional landscape of social organization. Correlation analysis reveals that the dimensions have relatively high independence, suggesting that social systems are able to evolve different aspects of social behavior without being tied to particular traits. Applying a clustering algorithm allows us to identify the relative importance of key dimensions on patterns of social organization. Finally, mapping mating system onto these clusters shows that social organization represents a distinct aspect of social systems. In the future, this framework will aid reporting on important aspects of natural history in species and facilitate comparative analyses, which ultimately will provide the ability to generate new insights into the primary drivers of social patterns and evolution of sociality.     

Habitat preference reflects social organization of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) on a wintering ground

Habitat preference is driven by a complex interaction among behavioural patterns, biological requirements, and environmental conditions. These variables are difficult to determine for any species but are further complicated for migratory marine mammals, such as humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae . Patterns of habitat use in relation to social organization potentially exist for this species on their wintering grounds. Using an integrated GIS approach, we examined the degree to which spatial patterns of habitat stratification are correlated within different humpback whale group types from 6 years of sighting data (1996–2001) collected on the Antongil Bay, Madagascar, wintering ground. Stratification of humpback whale sightings by behavioural classification showed significant variation in depth and distance from shore. Distribution by depth could not be described as a function of group size but could be described as a function of social organization, with mother–calf pairs showing a strong preference for shallower water compared to all other group types. Group size and social organization seem to be factors in distribution by distance from shore. Significant diurnal patterns in distribution by depth and distance from shore also exist, where mother–calf groups maintain a relatively stable distribution and pairs and competitive groups are the most variable. Patterns of habitat preference on this wintering ground appear to be guided by social organization, where distribution by depth and distance from shore highlight areas critical to conservation.     

Stability and resilience in East African Pastoralism: The Rendille and the Ariaal of northern Kenya

The social organizations of two closely related nomadic pastoral societies of northern Kenya, the Rendille and Ariaal, are compared in the context of the relative constancy and variability of their herding environments. It is concluded that the application of Brooks and Yellen's model of stability and resilience in human populations is of value in understanding the impact of environmental constraints on social organization, but it is argued that other social features including the organization of labor and ownership of different livestock types directly bear on the differences between the Rendille and Ariaal.     

Coexistence of the social types: genetic population structure in the ant Formica exsecta

The ant Formica exsecta has two types of colonies that exist in sympatry but usually as separate subpopulations: colonies with simple social organization and single queens (M type) or colonial networks with multiple queens (P type). We used both nuclear (DNA microsatellites) and mitochondrial markers to study the transition between the social types, and the contribution of males and females in gene flow within and between the types. Our results showed that the social types had different spatial genetic structures. The M subpopulations formed a fairly uniform population, whereas the P subpopulations were, on average, more differentiated from each other than from the nearby M subpopulations and could have been locally established from the M-type colonies, followed by philopatric behavior and restricted emigration of females. Thus, the relationship between the two social types resembles that of source (M type) and sink (P type) populations. The comparison of mitochondrial (phiST) and nuclear (FST) differentiation indicates that the dispersal rate of males is four to five times larger than that of females both among the P-type subpopulations and between the social types. Our results suggest that evolution toward complex social organization can have an important effect on genetic population structure through changes in dispersal behavior associated with different sociogenetic organizations.     

Ecological determinism in the life histories of baboons

An evolutionary model is presented for the covariation of parameters in ecology, behavior, morphology and social organization observed in interpopulational comparisons of baboons. Ecological determinants, in particular rainfall, shape the optimal life history strategies of individuals within a local population, in terms of the distribution of time and energy for reproductive effort, growth and maintenance. The results are adaptations in body mass, sexual dimorphism and aggression among baboons that are significantly correlated with rainfall. The three common types of baboon social organization, one-male units, multi-male troops and age-graded groups, are discussed as the consequences of male and female life history strategies, and in turn as social environments generating their own selection pressures.     

Über den Einfluß sozialer Isolation auf die Rangordnungskämpfe männlicher Schwertträger (Xiphophorus helleri12

The question is, if intraspecific aggressive behaviour can be understood as a drive. If Xiphophorus helleri ♂♂ are kept in social isolation for 7–56 days, the fights for rank order position showed an increasing duration and intensity (S-curving, ramming, circling and mouth-fighting are registered by an event-recorder. These results are in contrast to the results on cichlids and anabantids. The results can be explained by the idea of a spontaneous accumulation of attack readiness or as recovery from habituation. It is supposed that the different influence of social isolation on aggressive behavior corresponds to different types of social organization and ecological adaptations.     

Behavior Based Social Dimensions Extraction for Multi-Label Classification

Classification based on social dimensions is commonly used to handle the multi-label classification task in heterogeneous networks. However, traditional methods, which mostly rely on the community detection algorithms to extract the latent social dimensions, produce unsatisfactory performance when community detection algorithms fail. In this paper, we propose a novel behavior based social dimensions extraction method to improve the classification performance in multi-label heterogeneous networks. In our method, nodes’ behavior features, instead of community memberships, are used to extract social dimensions. By introducing Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) to model the network generation process, nodes’ connection behaviors with different communities can be extracted accurately, which are applied as latent social dimensions for classification. Experiments on various public datasets reveal that the proposed method can obtain satisfactory classification results in comparison to other state-of-the-art methods on smaller social dimensions.     

Controlling cell length

Control of cell dimensions is an important but poorly understood aspect of morphogenesis. In this review, our primary focus is on control of cell length in different types of cells and cytoskeletal regulation of this parameter. Cell length is not a constant characteristic of certain cell type but of cells of fibroblastic morphology. Since cytoskeleton organization can change during different processes of morphogenesis changes in length control during cell spreading, epithelio-mesenchymal transformation and also in neoplastic transformation are discussed.     

Long-term patterns of agonistic interactions in a captive group of wolves (Canis lupus)

Agonistic interactions were recorded in a captive group of wolves (Canis lupus) for a period of 21 months. Seventy-five per cent of all interactions were accounted for by only 4 or less of a possible 28 pairs during any given period of the study. Several animals were involved in very few agonistic interactions, and in many relationships such interactions were absent. Patterns of agonistic interaction alone did not suggest social relationships or an overall social structure applicable to all group members, although some evidence of a dominance hierarchy was found. Patterns of agonistic interactions were shown to involve several independent dimensions in different relationships. Further details of an underlying social organization are likely to emerge only from long-term studies which examine several dimensions of, and the interrelations between, a wide range of social interactions.     

Multidimensional training among Latin America's restoration professionals

The ambitious restoration commitments made by Latin American countries have increased the demand for professionals having multidimensional training in ecological restoration; however, little is known about the kind of training that professionals are currently receiving. Through an online survey, we explored whether restoration professionals in Latin America have been trained on the ecological, socioeconomic, and management dimensions of ecological restoration, and their perceptions of training constraints and curricula needs. Half of the 411 respondents simultaneously work in academia, governments, and nongovernmental organizations, lessening the typical division between the science and practice of restoration, and suggesting the need for stronger multidimensional training to adequately respond to different needs and expectations. Over 80% received formal academic training in fields relevant for restoration and most respondents also reported attending interdisciplinary courses. Training was more focused on the ecological dimension of restoration compared to socioeconomic or management dimensions. Respondents have similar education levels (i.e. most respondents have postgraduate degrees), independently from the organization type in which respondents work, and multidimensionality among organization types was slight. Professionals expressed a need for training opportunities not demanding full‐time dedication. Although increasing training opportunities in socioeconomic and management dimensions is needed, we highlight opportunities to reinforce multidimensional training on restoration through organizational and institutional training, and collaborations among organizations.     

DETERMINANTS OF PRIMATE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION: COMPARATIVE EVIDENCE AND NEW INSIGHTS FROM MALAGASY LEMURS

The aim of this review is to summarize newly available information on lemur social systems, to contrast it with the social organization of other primates and to relate it to existing models of primate social evolution. Because of their evolutionary history, the primates of Madagascar constitute a natural experiment in social evolution. During millions of years of isolation, they converged with other primates only in the most fundamental way in the evolution of solitary, pair-living and group-living species, but deviate in several respects within these basic categories of social organization. Solitary lemurs remain poorly studied, but their social organization appears to be broadly similar to that of other solitary primates, even though the unexpected lack of sexual dimorphism may indicate that similar types of social organization can give rise to different mating systems. The determinants of a solitary lifestyle remain elusive. Pair-living lemurs show striking convergences with other monogamous primates in several behavioural traits, but also deviate in that the majority of species are at least partly nocturnal and do not exhibit direct paternal care of dependent young. Group-living lemurs have not evolved single-male groups, male-bonded and multi-level societies, and polyandrous groups may also be lacking. Female philopatry is common, but female bonds are generally weakly developed and eviction of females from natal groups is not unusual. Group-living lemurs also differ from anthropoids in that their groups have even adult sex ratios, smaller average size and may split up on a seasonal basis. Feeding competition, predation risk and reproductive competition can not fully explain these unusual aspects of lemur social organization. It has therefore been suggested that the social consequences of the risk of infanticide and of recent changes in activity may be ultimately responsible for these idiosyncracies of group-living lemurs, an explanation largely supported by the available evidence. Thus, social factors and fundamental life-history traits, in addition to ecological factors, contribute importantly to variation in social systems among lemurs, and possibly other primates. However, neither the diversity of lemur social systems, nor the evolutionary forces and mechanisms operating in these and other primates are yet fully understood.     

The fine structure of iridosphores in the skin of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)

The fine structure of the distinct morphological forms of iridophore cells of the dermis of the Atlantic salmon, Salmo solar L., is described. Three types were found in the pigmented region of the sub-epidermis of the head, dorsal and lateral skin of the fish. A fourth type of iridophore found in great numbers in the hypodermal region of the ventral skin has been identified. The organization and the dimensions of the lacunae of the reflecting platelets and of the other cytoplasmic inclusions of the cell types are compared. Reflecting platelets have been isolated from the skin and are described.     

Re-Evaluating Primate Monogamy

Researchers propose hypotheses for the occurrence of monogamy as a social system in primates based on the assumption that there are a group of primates, including humans, which live exclusively in "nuclear families" and share a similar set of social behaviors. Examining the primates purported to be "monogamous" reveals that they cover a wide range of grouping types, mating patterns, taxonomic groups, and evolutionary grades. While there are a few primate species that do live in small, two-adult groups and share a similar set of social behaviors, the vast majority of the supposed "monogamous" primates, including humans, do not. [monogamy, social systems, evolution, variability in social organization]     

CAMPANIAN CRUSTACEAN BURROW SYSTEM FROM ISRAEL WITH BROOD AND NURSERY CHAMBERS REPRESENTING COMMUNAL ORGANIZATION

Abstract:  Phosphorite-filled crustacean burrows associated with a Campanian-age omission surface in the north-western Negev are described. The phosphatic burrow casts weather out displaying scratches (bioglyphs) and two types of local swellings (chambers), which are flattened normal to the course of the burrow. The more abundant chamber type is a flattened spheroid (diameter 45–50 mm) or a flattened, highly prolate ellipsoid of larger dimensions, with bioglyphs. The other type is a flattened spheroid (diameter 45 mm), gently rounded on the upper side and flat on the base. Rings of elevations on the cast (representing moats) form interconnected circlets, each capped by about eight rounded hemispherical tubercles (4 × 4 mm) (pits on original), the whole forming a discrete network. The first type of chamber may have hosted the young (nursery chamber) and/or stored food. The second type of cast replicates a chamber with a pitted floor, which may have formed a brood chamber for 60–70 spherical eggs, each about 3 mm in diameter. Brood chambers in crustacean burrow systems were previously suspected, but only at burrow terminations. The interpreted K-type breeding strategy, brood care and associated functions require a high degree of social organization, none of which has been observed in extant crustaceans, but all occur within social insects.     

From social to genetic structures in central Asia

Pastoral and farmer populations, who have coexisted in Central Asia since the fourth millennium B.C., present not only different lifestyles and means of subsistence but also various types of social organization. Pastoral populations are organized into so-called descent groups (tribes, clans, and lineages) and practice exogamous marriages (a man chooses a bride in a different lineage or clan). In Central Asia, these descent groups are patrilineal: The children are systematically affiliated with the descent groups of the father. By contrast, farmer populations are organized into families (extended or nuclear) and often establish endogamous marriages with cousins. This study aims at better understanding the impact of these differences in lifestyle and social organization on the shaping of genetic diversity. We show that pastoral populations exhibit a substantial loss of Y chromosome diversity in comparison to farmers but that no such a difference is observed at the mitochondrial-DNA level. Our analyses indicate that the dynamics of patrilineal descent groups, which implies different male and female sociodemographic histories, is responsible for these sexually-asymmetric genetic patterns. This molecular signature of the pastoral social organization disappears over a few centuries only after conversion to an agricultural way of life.     

Scale Overlap,a Directional Sign Stimulus for Prey Ingestion by Ophiophagous Snakes1

This paper describes in detail the elements of social behaviour and social organizations of four closely related rodents (Notomys alexis, Pseudomys albocinereus, P. shortridgei and P. desertor) from diverse habitats, and the social organizations of seven other conilurine rodents are described briefly. Most of the data were determined from quantitative observations of animals caged in twos or in larger groups for at least ten days. Breeding pairs were observed daily throughout pregnancy and parenthood. A dispersed organization and three types of communal organization are described, and evolutionary trends in dispersion and territoriality, cohesion, communication and co-operation are discussed.     

The causes and scope of political egalitarianism during the Last Glacial: a multi-disciplinary perspective

This paper reviews and synthesizes emerging multi-disciplinary evidence toward understanding the development of social and political organization in the Last Glacial. Evidence for the prevalence and scope of political egalitarianism is reviewed and the biological, social, and environmental influences on this mode of human organization are further explored. Viewing social and political organization in the Last Glacial in a much wider, multi-disciplinary context provides the footing for coherent theory building and hypothesis testing by which to further explore human political systems. We aim to overcome the claim that our ancestors’ form of social organization is untestable, as well as counter a degree of exaggeration regarding possibilities for sedentism, population densities, and hierarchical structures prior to the Holocene with crucial advances from disparate disciplines.     

Social Organization and Knowledge

This paper explores the relationship between different types of social organization, on the one hand, and different modes of knowing and types of knowledge, on the other. Some characteristic distinctions are suggested and supported with evidence, both from diverse areas of theory, and from the study of two contrasting Melanesian cultures: that of the Lavongai of New Hanover and the Tikana of New Ireland.     

Introduction

This introduction to the volume argues for the central and integrating role of the subject matter of ethnobiological research in anthropology understood in its widest sense: in its biological, archaeo-historical, and socio-cultural dimensions. The background and current status of ethnobiology are assessed, and its contribution to anthropological issues considered under the following headings: the foundational paradigm of taxonomic orthodoxy; language and the translation of knowledge systems; cognition and culture; the social organization and transmission of knowledge; medical ethnobiology; the applied practice of ethnobiology; and – the meta-theory which binds all this together – the co-evolutionary paradigm as part of a wider 'biocultural synthesis'. The way in which the collected papers exemplify these themes is discussed.