Interaction between fascicle and tendinous tissues in short-contact stretch-shortening cycle exercise with varying eccentric intensities.

The interaction between fascicle and tendinous tissues (TT) in short-contact drop jumps (DJ) with three different drop heights [low (Low), optimal (OP), and high (High)] was examined with 11 subjects. The ground reaction force (F(z)) and ankle and knee joint angles were measured together with real-time ultrasonography (fascicle length) and electromyographic activities of the medial gastrocnemius (MG) and vastus lateralis (VL) muscles during the movement. With increasing drop height, the braking force and flight time increased from Low to OP (P < 0.05). In High, the braking force increased but the flight time decreased compared with OP (P < 0.05). During contact of Low and OP conditions, the length of muscle-tendon unit and TT underwent lengthening before shortening in both MG and VL muscles. However, the two muscles differed in the fascicle behaviors. The MG fascicles behaved isometrically or shortened, and the VL fascicles underwent lengthening before shortening during contact. In High, the TT lengthening in both muscles decreased compared with OP (P < 0.05). The rapid stretch occurred in the MG fascicles but not in VL fascicles during the braking phase. The elastic recoil ratio decreased in both muscles with increasing the intensity during DJ. These findings demonstrated that TT underwent lengthening before shortening during DJ. However, the efficacy of elastic recoil decreased with increasing the drop intensity. The effective catapult action in TT can be limited by the drop intensity. In addition, the measured muscles behaved differently during DJ, providing evidence that each muscle may have a specific means of fascicle-TT interaction.     

Effects of different dropping intensities on fascicle and tendinous tissue behavior during stretch-shortening cycle exercise.

This study examined whether the elasticity of the tendinous tissues plays an important role in human locomotion by improving the power output and efficiency of skeletal muscle. Ten subjects performed one-leg drop jumps (DJ) from different dropping heights with a constant rebound height. The fascicle length of the vastus lateralis muscle was measured by using real-time ultrasonography during DJ. In the braking phase of the DJ, fascicle lengthening decreased and the tendinous tissue lengthening increased with increased dropping intensity. In the subsequent push-off phase, the shortening of tendinous tissues increased with higher dropping intensity. The averaged electromyographic activities of the preactivation and braking phases increased and those of the push-off phase decreased as the drop height was increased. With higher dropping height but constant submaximal rebound jump, the stretched tendinous tissue length increased with less stretched fascicle during the braking phase. In the subsequent push-off phase, the recoil of tendinous tissues became greater. These results suggest that the increased prestretch intensity has considerable influence on the process of storage and subsequent recoil of the elastic energy during the stretch-shortening cycle action.     

The role of the stretch reflex in the gastrocnemius muscle during human locomotion at various speeds.

In the present study, the fascicle length (L(fa)) of the human medial gastrocnemius (MG) muscle was monitored to evaluate possible input from the short-latency stretch reflex (SLR) during the stance phase of running and to examine its timing at various running speeds. Eight subjects ran at 2.0, 3.5, 5.0, and 6.5 m/s. The L(fa) was measured with the high-speed ultrasound fascicle scanning together with kinematics and myoelectrical activities. The amplitudes and onset latency of SLR activities were determined. During ground contact, the sudden MG fascicle stretch occurred during the early contact at all running speeds. This was followed by the fascicle shortening. The timing of fascicle stretch depended on running speed and type of foot contact. In slower speed conditions (2.0, 3.5, 5 m/s), the MG fascicle stretch and the corresponding SLR activities occurred during the middle of the braking phase. In fast-speed running (6.5 m/s), however, the MG fascicle stretch occurred later compared with the lower speed. The corresponding SLR activities occurred significantly later at the end of the braking phase. In addition to the clear demonstration of the different timings of SLR in MG during ground contact of running, the results imply that the role of the MG SLR during the stance phase of running can be different between fast- and slow-speed running conditions.     

Age-related neuromuscular function during drop jumps.

Muscle- and movement-specific fascicle-tendon interaction affects the performance of the neuromuscular system. This interaction is unknown among elderly and consequently contributes to the lack of understanding the age-related problems on neuromuscular control. The present experiment studied the age specificity of fascicle-tendon interaction of the gastrocnemius medialis (GM) muscle in drop jump (DJ) exercises. Twelve young and thirteen elderly subjects performed maximal squat jumps and DJs with maximal rebound effort on a sledge apparatus. Ankle and knee joint angles, reaction force, and electromyography (EMG) from the soleus (Sol), GM, and tibialis anterior (TA) muscles were measured together with the GM fascicle length by ultrasonography. The results showed that the measured ankle joint stiffness (AJS) during the braking phase correlated positively with the rebound speed in both age groups and that both parameters were significantly lower in the elderly than in young subjects. In both groups, the AJS correlated positively with averaged EMG (aEMG) in Sol during the braking phase and was further associated with GM activation (r = 0.55, P < 0.01) and TA coactivation (TA/GM r = -0.4 P < 0.05) in the elderly subjects. In addition, compared with the young subjects, the elderly subjects showed significantly lower GM aEMG in the braking phase and higher aEMG in the push-off phase, indicating less utilization of tendinous tissue (TT) elasticity. These different activation patterns are in line with the mechanical behavior of GM showing significantly less fascicle shortening and relative TT stretching in the braking phase in the elderly than in the young subjects. These results suggest that age-specific muscle activation patterns as well as mechanical behaviors exist during DJs.     

Contribution of the tendinous tissue to force enhancement during stretch-shortening cycle exercise depends on the prestretch and concentric phase intensities.

When the prestretch intensity and concentric work are increased in stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) exercises, the utilization of the elastic energy can increase during the concentric phase. In order to further understand this process during SSC exercises, the interaction between fascicle-tendinous tissues (TT) of the vastus lateralis (VL) muscle was examined under different prestretch and rebound intensity drop jumps. Ten male subjects participated in the study. Direct VL fascicle lengths (N = 10) and in vivo patellar tendon force (N = 1) were measured together with the electromyographic (EMG) activity of VL during the trials. With increasing drop height but the same rebound height condition, the TT stretch increased during the early braking phase with a subsequent increase in its recoil during the early push-off phase. This occurred concomitantly with decreased fascicle shortening and EMG activation. However, with the increased rebound height but the same drop height condition, the fascicles were stretched less during the late braking phase with higher EMG activation. In this situation, TT could be stretched more by the tension provided by fascicles. Consequently, the TT recoil increased during the late push-off phase. These observations confirm that there can be an intensity specific fascicle-TT interaction during SSC exercises.     

Muscle-tendon interaction and elastic energy usage in human walking.

The present study was designed to explore how the interaction between the fascicles and tendinous tissues is involved in storage and utilization of elastic energy during human walking. Eight male subjects walked with a natural cadence (1.4 +/- 0.1 m/s) on a 10-m-long force plate system. In vivo techniques were employed to record the Achilles tendon force and to scan real-time fascicle lengths for two muscles (medial gastrocnemius and soleus). The results showed that tendinous tissues of both medial gastrocnemius and soleus muscles lengthened slowly throughout the single-stance phase and then recoiled rapidly close to the end of the ground contact. However, the fascicle length changes demonstrated different patterns and amplitudes between two muscles. The medial gastrocnemius fascicles were stretched during the early single-stance phase and then remained isometrically during the late-stance phase. In contrast, the soleus fascicles were lengthened until the end of the single-stance phase. These findings suggest that the elastic recoil takes place not as a spring-like bouncing but as a catapult action in natural human walking. The interaction between the muscle fascicles and tendinous tissues plays an important role in the process of release of elastic energy, although the leg muscles, which are commonly accepted as synergists, do not have similar mechanical behavior of fascicles in this catapult action.     

Muscle fiber and tendon length changes in the human vastus lateralis during slow pedaling.

Muscle fascicle lengths of vastus lateralis (VL) muscle were measured in five healthy men during slow pedaling to investigate the interaction between muscle fibers and tendon. Subjects cycled at a pedaling rate of 40 rpm (98 W). During exercise, fascicle lengths changed from 91 +/- 7 (SE) to 127 +/- 5 mm. It was suggested that fascicles were on the descending limb of their force-length relationship. The average shortening velocity of fascicle was greater than that of muscle-tendon complex in the first half of the knee extension phase and was less in the second half. The maximum shortening velocity of fascicle in the knee extension phase was less than that of muscle-tendon complex by 22 +/- 9%. These discrepancies in velocities were mainly caused by the elongation of the tendinous tissue. It was suggested that the elasticity of VL tendinous tissue enabled VL fascicles to develop force at closer length to their optimal length and kept the maximum shortening velocity of VL fascicles low during slow pedaling.     

Muscle fascicle and series elastic element length changes along the length of the human gastrocnemius during walking and running

Ultrasound imaging has recently been used to distinguish the length changes of muscle fascicles from those of the whole muscle tendon complex during real life movements. The complicated three-dimensional architecture of pennate muscles can however cause heterogeneity in the length changes along the length of a muscle. Here we use ultrasonography to examine muscle fascicle length and pennation angle changes at proximal, distal and midbelly sites of the human gastrocnemius medialis (GM) muscle during walking (4.5 km/h) and running (7.5 km/h) on a treadmill. The results of this study have shown that muscle fascicles perform the same actions along the length of the human GM muscle during locomotion. However the distal fascicles tend to shorten more and act at greater pennation angles than the more proximal fascicles. Muscle fascicles acted relatively isometrically during the stance phase during walking, however during running the fascicles shortened throughout the stance phase, which corresponded to an increase in the strain of the series elastic elements (SEEs) (consisting of the Achilles tendon and aponeurosis). Measurement of the fascicle length changes at the midbelly level provided a good approximation of the average fascicle length changes across the length of the muscle. The compliance of the SEE allows the muscle fascicles to shorten at a much slower speed, more concomitant with their optimal speed for maximal power output and efficiency, with high velocity shortening during take off in both walking and running achieved by recoil of the SEE.     

Muscle power attenuation by tendon during energy dissipation

An important function of skeletal muscle is deceleration via active muscle fascicle lengthening, which dissipates movement energy. The mechanical interplay between muscle contraction and tendon elasticity is critical when muscles produce energy. However, the role of tendon elasticity during muscular energy dissipation remains unknown. We tested the hypothesis that tendon elasticity functions as a mechanical buffer, preventing high (and probably damaging) velocities and powers during active muscle fascicle lengthening. We directly measured lateral gastrocnemius muscle force and length in wild turkeys during controlled landings requiring rapid energy dissipation. Muscle-tendon unit (MTU) strain was measured via video kinematics, independent of muscle fascicle strain (measured via sonomicrometry). We found that rapid MTU lengthening immediately following impact involved little or no muscle fascicle lengthening. Therefore, joint flexion had to be accommodated by tendon stretch. After the early contact period, muscle fascicles lengthened and absorbed energy. This late lengthening occurred after most of the joint flexion, and was thus mainly driven by tendon recoil. Temporary tendon energy storage led to a significant reduction in muscle fascicle lengthening velocity and the rate of energy absorption. We conclude that tendons function as power attenuators that probably protect muscles against damage from rapid and forceful lengthening during energy dissipation.     

Influence of step-height and body mass on gastrocnemius muscle fascicle behavior during stair ascent

To better understand the role of the ankle plantar flexor muscles in stair negotiation, we examined the effects of manipulation of kinematic and kinetic constraints on the behavior of the gastrocnemius medialis (GM) muscle during stair ascent. Ten subjects ascended a four-step staircase at four different step-heights (changing the kinematic constraints): standard (17 cm), 50% decreased, 50% increased and 75% increased. At the standard height, subjects also ascended the stairs wearing a weighted jacket, adding 20% of their body mass (changing the kinetic constraints). During stair ascent, kinematics and kinetics of the lower legs were determined using motion capture and ground reaction force measurements. The GM muscle fascicle length was measured during the task with ultrasonography. The amount of GM muscle fascicle shortening increased with step-height, coinciding with an increase in ankle joint moment. The increase in body mass resulted in an increased ankle joint moment, but the amount of GM muscle fascicle shortening during the lift-off phase did not increase, instead, the fascicles were shorter over the whole stride cycle. Increasing demands of stair ascent, by increasing step-height or body mass, requires higher joint moments. The increased ankle joint moment with increasing demands is, at least in part, produced by the increase in GM muscle fascicle shortening.     

Neuromuscular functioning of athletes and non-athletes in the drop jump

In many sports vertical jumping is important. This study compared neuromuscular functioning of the lower extremity muscles together with some kinetic and kinematic parameters before and during ground contact in drop jumps from two heights [0.4 m (DJ40) and 0.8 m (DJ80)] in 7 highly trained triple-jumpers and 11 physically active controls. The triple-jumpers jumped 32% higher in DJ40 and 34% higher in DJ80, had shorter braking and total contact times, and greater average and peak vertical ground reaction forces than the controls. In both drop jumps in the electromyogram pre-activity of the vastus lateralis and gastrocnemius muscles started earlier in the jumpers than in the controls. For the control group the increase in dropping height was associated with a decrease in the propulsion force, and resulted in more extended knee and ankle angles at touch down and more flexed angles at the deepest position than for the jumpers. All angular displacements for DJ80 were larger than for DJ40 in the control group. The triple jumpers and control subjects differed with respect to their neuromuscular functioning in the drop jump exercise and they responded in a different way to the increase in dropping height. Accepted: 2 April 1998     

Acute effect of muscle stretching on the steadiness of sustained submaximal contractions of the plantar flexor muscles

This paper examines the acute effect of a bout of static stretches on torque fluctuation during an isometric torque-matching task that required subjects to sustain isometric contractions as steady as possible with the plantar flexor muscles at four intensities (5, 10, 15, and 20% of maximum) for 20 s. The stretching bout comprised five 60-s passive stretches, separated by 10-s rest. During the torque-matching tasks and muscle stretching, the torque (active and passive) and surface electromyogram (EMG) of the medial gastrocnemius (MG), soleus (Sol), and tibialis anterior (TA) were continuously recorded. Concurrently, changes in muscle architecture (fascicle length and pennation angle) of the MG were monitored by ultrasonography. The results showed that during stretching, passive torque decreased and fascicle length increased gradually. Changes in these two parameters were significantly associated (r(2) = 0.46; P < 0.001). When data from the torque-matching tasks were collapsed across the four torque levels, stretches induced greater torque fluctuation (P < 0.001) and enhanced EMG activity (P < 0.05) in MG and TA muscles with no change in coactivation. Furthermore, stretching maneuvers produced a greater decrease (～15%; P < 0.001) in fascicle length during the torque-matching tasks and change in torque fluctuation (CV) was positively associated with changes in fascicle length (r(2) = 0.56; P < 0.001), MG and TA EMG activities, and coactivation (r(2) = 0.35, 0.34, and 0.35, respectively; P < 0.001). In conclusion, these observations indicate that repeated stretches can decrease torque steadiness by increasing muscle compliance and EMG activity of muscles around the joint. The relative influence of such adaptations, however, may depend on the torque level during the torque-matching task.     

Functional and clinical significance of the architecture of human skeletal muscles

The architectural properties of the triceps surae muscle were studied in vivo in groups of healthy subjects (eight men) and patients with locomotor function disorders (four men and four women) with the ankle joint positioned at a plantar flexion 0° and the knee set at 90° (neutral position). In this position, using ultrasonic scanning, longitudinal ultrasonic images of the medial gastrocnemius (MG), lateral gastrocnemius (LG), and soleus (Sol) muscles were obtained when the subject was relaxed (the passive state) or performed isometric plantar flexion (50% of the maximum voluntary contraction (MVC), the active state). The fascicle lengths, fascicle angles, and muscle thickness were determined. In the passive state, the fascicle lengths of the MG, LG, and Sol muscles in the group of healthy subjects were 33, 35, and 30 mm and the pennation angle, 25°, 19°, and 25°; in the group of patients with motor disorders, 38, 39, and 29 mm and 21°, 19°, and 24°, respectively. The MG, LG, and Sol thicknesses in the group of healthy subjects were 15, 13, and 12 mm, and in the group of patients with motor disorders, 14, 12, and 14 mm, respectively. In the active state (50% of the MVC), the MG, LG, and Sol fiber lengths in the group of healthy subjects shortened by 31, 24, and 18%; the fiber pennation angle increased by 60, 41, and 41%, respectively. In the group of patients with motor disorders, the fiber lengths shortened by 28, 14, and 18% and the fiber pennation angle decreased by 28, 26, and 36%, respectively. The MG, LG, and Sol thicknesses in the group of healthy subjects increased by 9, 22, and 18%, while in the group of patients with motor disorders the thickness decreased by 4% in the MG and increased by 11 and 4% in the LG and Sol muscles, respectively. Different fiber lengths and pennation angles and their changes upon contraction might be related to differences in the force-producing capabilities of the muscles and the viscoelastic properties of muscle tendons and aponeuroses.     

In vivo fascicle behavior of synergistic muscles in concentric and eccentric plantar flexions in humans.

Ultrasonography was used to directly measure in vivo fascicle behavior of the medial gastrocnemius (MG) and soleus (SOL) muscles while the subjects (n=6 men) performed maximal voluntary concentric and eccentric plantar flexions at 60, 120, 180 and 240 deg/s. Fascicle shortening and lengthening velocities of MG, obtained from fascicle length changes over time, were significantly higher than those of SOL at +/-120, +/-180 and +240 deg/s, possibly reflecting physiological and mechanical differences between these muscles. On the other hand, the effective fascicle shortening and lengthening velocities, defined as the velocities in the longitudinal direction of muscle belly, were not significantly different between MG and SOL. This could be due to difference in fascicle architecture and/or the existence of mechanical linkages between these muscles. Moreover, when the contribution of tendinous tissues to muscle-tendon complex length change was determined from fascicle length, pennation angle, moment arm and joint angle, it accounted for approximately 50% in both concentric and eccentric trials, but showed considerable intra-subject variations. This result quantifiably demonstrates the importance of tendinous tissues in isokinetically controlled joint movements.     

Behavior of human muscle fascicles during shortening and lengthening contractions in vivo.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the behavior of human muscle fascicles during dynamic contractions. Eight subjects performed maximal isometric dorsiflexion contractions at six ankle joint angles and maximal isokinetic concentric and eccentric contractions at five angular velocities. Tibialis anterior muscle architecture was measured in vivo by use of B-mode ultrasonography. During maximal isometric contraction, fascicle length was shorter and pennation angle larger compared with values at rest (P < 0.01). During isokinetic concentric contractions from 0 to 4.36 rad/s, fascicle length measured at a constant ankle joint angle increased curvilinearly from 49.5 to 69.7 mm (41%; P < 0.01), whereas pennation angle decreased curvilinearly from 14.8 to 9.8 degrees (34%; P < 0.01). During eccentric muscle actions, fascicles contracted quasi-isometrically, independent of angular velocity. The behavior of muscle fascicles during shortening contractions was believed to reflect the degree of stretch applied to the series elastic component, which decreases with increasing contraction velocity. The quasi-isometric behavior of fascicles during eccentric muscle actions suggests that the series elastic component acts as a mechanical buffer during active lengthening.     

Passive knee movement-induced modulation of the soleus H-reflex and alteration in the fascicle length of the medial gastrocnemius muscle in humans

In humans, an inhibitory via Ia afferent pathway from the medial gastrocnemius (MG) to the soleus (SOL) motoneuron pool has been suggested. Herein, we examined the relation between MG fascicle length changes and the SOL H-reflex modulation during passive knee movement. Twelve subjects performed static and passive (5° s^?1) knee movement tasks with the ankle immobilized using an isokinetic dynamometer in sitting posture. The maximal H- and M-waves were measured at four target angles (20°, 40°, 60°, and 80° flexion from full knee extension). The MG fascicles length and velocity were measured using a B-mode ultrasonic apparatus. Results demonstrated that the SOL Hmax/Mmax; i.e., ratio of the maximal H- to M-waves, was attenuated with increasing MG fascicle length in static tasks. The SOL Hmax/Mmax at 20° was significantly attenuated compared with 60° and 80° with increasing MG fascicle length and lengthening velocity in passive knee extension. However, no significant differences in the SOL Hmax/Mmax were found across the target angles in the passive knee flexion task. In conclusion, as muscle spindles increase their discharge with lengthening fascicle velocity, but keep silent when fascicles shorten, our data suggest that lengthening the MG facilitates an inhibitory Ia pathway from MG to SOL, and modulates SOL motoneuron activity during movements.     

Interaction between fascicles and tendinous structures during counter movement jumping investigated in vivo.

Behavior of fascicles and tendinous structures of the m. gastrocnemius medialis (MG) was quantitatively examined during human jumping in vivo. Eight male subjects performed maximal-effort counter movement jumping (CMJ) motions. Kinematic and kinetic data were obtained using a high-speed camera and a force platform. Behavior of fascicles and tendinous structures was determined using ultrasonography and electromyography. Although the muscle-tendon complex (MTC) shortened by only 1.6% during the downward phase of the counter movement, fascicles shortened as much as 10.4%. This shortening of fascicles caused elongation of tendinous structures by 2.2%. Although the MTC remained at almost constant length during the upward-I phase (-250 to -100 ms before toe-off), fascicles shortened by 19.2% of the initial length with an elongation of tendinous structures by 4.4%. The MTC shortened rapidly by 5.3% of the initial length during the upward-II phase (-100 to 0 ms), whereas fascicles shortened slightly during the first half of this phase and contracted in a quasi-isometric manner during the latter half of this phase. These findings implied that elastic energy was stored in tendinous structures throughout the latter half of the downward phase (1.0 J) and upward-I phase (5.6 J), which was thereafter rapidly released during the upward-II phase (3.8 J). It was found that muscle fibers of the MG were not stretched during counter movement; therefore, stretch reflex and potentiation of the contractile component of the MG might not contribute to the work enhancement in CMJ. It was suggested that the interaction between fascicles and tendinous structures was essential in a generation of higher joint power during the late push-off phase. This behavior of the MTC of the MG in CMJ was quite similar to what was observed in squat jumping performed without counter movement.     

Architectural and functional features of human triceps surae muscles during contraction

Architecturalproperties of the triceps surae muscles were determined in vivo for sixmen. The ankle was positioned at 15° dorsiflexion (15°)and 0, 15, and 30° plantar flexion, with the knee set at 0, 45, and90°. At each position, longitudinal ultrasonic images of the medial(MG) and lateral (LG) gastrocnemius and soleus (Sol) muscles wereobtained while the subject was relaxed (passive) and performed maximalisometric plantar flexion (active), from which fascicle lengths andangles with respect to the aponeuroses were determined. In the passivecondition, fascicle lengths changed from 59, 65, and 43 mm (knee,0°; ankle, 15°) to 32, 41, and 30 mm (knee, 90°ankle, 30°) for MG, LG, and Sol, respectively. Fascicle shorteningby contraction was more pronounced at longer fascicle lengths. MG hadgreatest fascicle angles, ranging from 22 to 67°, and was in a verydisadvantageous condition when the knee was flexed at 90°,irrespective of ankle positions. Different lengths and angles offascicles, and their changes by contraction, might be related todifferences in force-producing capabilities of the muscles and elasticcharacteristics of tendons and aponeuroses.

     

Gastrocnemius muscle fascicle behavior during stair negotiation in humans.

The aim of the present study was to establish the behavior of human medial gastrocnemius (GM) muscle fascicles during stair negotiation. Ten healthy male subjects performed normal stair ascent and descent at their own comfortable speed on a standard-dimension four-step staircase with embedded force platforms in each step. Kinematic, kinetic, and electromyographic data of the lower limbs were collected. Real-time ultrasound scanning was used to determine GM muscle fascicle length changes. Musculotendon complex (MTC) length changes were estimated from ankle and knee joint kinematics. The GM muscle was mainly active during the push-off phase in stair ascent, and the muscle fascicles contracted nearly isometrically. The GM muscle was mainly active during the touch-down phase of stair descent where the MTC was lengthened; however, the GM muscle fascicles shortened by approximately 7 mm. These findings show that the behavior and function of GM muscle fascicles in stair negotiation is different from that expected on the basis of length changes of the MTC as derived from joint kinematics.     

Behavior of fascicles and tendinous structures of human gastrocnemius during vertical jumping.

Behavior of fascicles and tendinous structures of human gastrocnemius medialis (MG) was determined by use of ultrasonography in vivo during jumping. Eight male subjects jumped vertically without countermovement (squat jump, SQJ). Simultaneously, kinematics, kinetics, and electromyography from lower leg muscles were recorded during SQJ. During phase I (-350 to -100 ms before toe-off), muscle-tendon complex (MTC) length was almost constant. Fascicles, however, shortened by 26%, and tendinous structures were stretched by 6%, storing elastic energy of 4.9 J during phase I. During phase II (-100 ms to toe-off), although fascicles generated force quasi-isometrically, MTC shortened rapidly by 5.3%, releasing prestored elastic energy with a higher peak positive power than that of fascicles. Also, the compliance of tendinous structures in vivo was somewhat higher than that of external tendon used in the simulation studies. The results demonstrate that the compliance of tendinous structures, together with no yielding of muscle fibers, allows MTC to effectively generate relatively large power at a high joint angular velocity region during the last part of push-off.