Taking due care: moral obligations in dual use research

In the past decade, the perception of a bioterrorist threat has increased and created a demand on life scientists to consider the potential security implications of dual use research. This article examines a selection of proposed moral obligations for life scientists that have emerged to meet these concerns and the extent to which they can be considered reasonable. It also describes the underlying reasons for the concerns, how they are managed, and their implications for scientific values. Five criteria for what constitutes preventable harm are suggested and a number of proposed obligations for life scientists are considered against these criteria, namely, the obligations to prevent bioterrorism; to engage in response activities; to consider negative implications of research; not to publish or share sensitive information; to oversee and limit access to dangerous material; and to report activities of concern. Although bioterrorism might be perceived as an imminent threat, the analysis illustrates that this is beyond the responsibility of life scientists either to prevent or to respond to. Among the more reasonable obligations are duties to consider potential negative implications of one's research, protect access to sensitive material, technology and knowledge, and report activities of concern. Responsibility, therefore, includes obligations concerned with preventing foreseeable and highly probable harm. A central conclusion is that several of the proposed obligations are reasonable, although not unconditionally.     

CURRICULUM GUIDE FOR RESEARCH ETHICS WORKSHOPS FOR COUNTRIES IN THE MIDDLE EAST

To help ensure the ethical conduct of research, many have recommended educational efforts in research ethics to investigators and members of research ethics committees (RECs). One type of education activity involves multi‐day workshops in research ethics. To be effective, such workshops should contain the appropriate content and teaching techniques geared towards the learning styles of the targeted audiences. To ensure consistency in content and quality, we describe the development of a curriculum guide, core competencies and associated learning objectives and activities to help educators organize research ethics workshops in their respective institutions. The curriculum guide is divided into modular units to enable planners to develop workshops of different lengths and choose content materials that match the needs, abilities, and prior experiences of the target audiences. The content material in the curriculum guide is relevant for audiences in the Middle East, because individuals from the Middle East who participated in a Certificate Program in research ethics selected and developed the training materials (e.g., articles, powerpoint slides, case studies, protocols). Also, many of the activities incorporate active‐learning methods, consisting of group work activities analyzing case studies and reviewing protocols. The development of such a workshop training curriculum guide represents a sustainable educational resource to enhance research ethics capacity in the Middle East.     

江豚生命表和种群动态的研究

根据江豚长江种群、黄海种群和南海种群的年龄鉴定数据,编制了３个种群的静态生命表,绘制了各种群的存活曲线、死亡曲线和死亡率曲线,计算了各种群的内禀增长能力。３个种群的存活曲线均为Ｃ型（Ｏｄｕｍ,１９８３）,但南海种群和黄海种群的陡度更大。各种群的０～２龄,以及黄海江豚和南海江豚的２～４龄是死亡高峰期。死亡率曲线在各种群中呈现一定的波动。各种群的性比与１∶１没有显著性差异。３个种群的Ｒ０和λ均小于１,ｒｍ均小于０,表明它们的数量有减少的趋势,需加强对它们的保护。     

PUPPING HABITAT USE IN THE MEDITERRANEAN MONK SEAL: A LONG-TERM STUDY

The Mediterranean monk seal gives birth almost exclusively in coastal caves. Given its critical conservation status, the identification and protection of such sites is important for the survival of the species. From 1990 to 2004 we collected data on physical and environmental variables and monitored pupping events in thirty-four coastal caves in Greece. We modeled the probability of cave occupancy as a function of the properties of each cave. Model selection and model averaging enabled us to rank the variables that influenced use of potential pupping sites. Environmental variables related to cave seclusion, substrate, and degree of protection from wind and wave action were the most important among them. The relative importance and directions of these relationships confirm the long-standing assumption that Mediterranean monk seals require sheltered pupping sites, far from sources of human disturbance and thus are progressively limited to isolated parts of the country's coastline. We used cross-validation to examine the predictive ability of our analysis and quantified the sensitivity of our predictions to the degree of extrapolation. We conclude that, although more data are required, the model is capable of predicting occupancy for caves close to the middle of the environmental space examined in this study.     

QUANTITATIVE TESTS OF A DUAL CIRCALUNIDIAN CLOCK MODEL FOR TIDAL RHYTHMICITY IN THE SAND BEACH ISOPOD CIROLANA COOKII

In constant conditions (constant darkness [DD], 20°C), the sand beach isopod Cirolana cookii exhibits spontaneous rhythmic swimming activity with an average free-running period of 12.5h. The rhythms are seen as temporal adaptations to a complex intertidal environment. These results support a dual circalunidian clock model for tidal rhythms in which two components of the rhythm have characteristic periods and active phase lengths and are hypothesized to be controlled by separate circalunidian clocks. A quantitative model successfully simulates many of the properties of endogenous swimming rhythms of C. cookii, including free-running behavior, entrainment, and phase-response curves (PRCs). (Chronobiology International 17 (1), 29–41, 2000)     

A MODEL LIFE TABLE FOR BOTTLENOSE DOLPHINS (TURSIOPS TRUNCATUS) FROM THE INDIAN RIVER LAGOON SYSTEM, FLORIDA, U.S.A.

Data gathered from 220 stranded bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ) in the Indian River Lagoon system, Florida, were used to derive a life table. Survivorship curves were fit to the data using Siler's competing-risk model and a maximum likelihood approach. Population growth was estimated to be between r = 0.0 and 0.046 based on the observed numbers of stranded dolphins. Variance in survival rates was estimated using an individual-based, age-structured population projection model. We estimate that the overall annual mortality rate for this population was 9.8% per year. Sex-specific differences in survivorship were apparent with females outliving males. The overall mortality curve resembles that of other large mammals, with high calf mortality and an exponentially increasing risk of senescent mortality. The inclusion of live-capture removals of individuals from this population did not significantly affect the estimation of survival parameters for most age classes.     

象限法在热带山地雨林群落学调查中的应用研究

 本研究用象限法对海南岛尖峰岭地区一个山地雨林林分作了群落学调查,并将所得结果与78.5%面积取样比的记数样地法调查结果及实测结果进行比较。56个点的象限法调查所得密度、平均胸高断面积、优势度、组成种数量及组成种重要值序是令人满意的,而所花费时间最多为记数样地法的40%。但对该林分来说,样点数不能依照象限法的设计者Cottam和Curtis的结论来确定,即平均距离调查所需的点数即为群落调查所需的样点数,而要依据平均胸高断面积调查所需的点数来确定。     

由柑桔落果提取橙皮甙的工艺改进研究

本文提出了一条从柑桔落果提取橙皮甙的改进工艺.先将柑桔落果粉粹到3—4毫米,加入一定量的水,再用生、熟石灰混合粉调节到pH为11至12,搅拌浸提1.5小时,过滤、酸化、收集固体,最后干燥,就可以得到纯度约为90％的橙皮甙,提取率为8.4％左右.     

ADEQUATE TRUST AVAILS,MISTAKEN TRUST MATTERS: ON THE MORAL RESPONSIBILITY OF DOCTORS AS PROXIES FOR PATIENTS' TRUST IN BIOBANK RESEARCH

In Sweden, most patients are recruited into biobank research by non‐researcher doctors. Patients' trust in doctors may therefore be important to their willingness to participate. We suggest a model of trust that makes sense of such transitions of trust between domains and distinguishes adequate trust from mistaken trust. The unique position of doctors implies, we argue, a Kantian imperfect duty to compensate for patients' mistaken trust. There are at least three kinds of mistaken trust, each of which requires a different set of countermeasures. First, trust is mistaken when necessary competence is lacking; the competence must be developed or the illusion dispelled. Second, trust is irrational whenever the patient is mistaken about his actual reasons for trusting. Care must therefore be taken to support the patient's reasoning and moral agency. Third, some patients inappropriately trust doctors to recommend only research that will benefit them directly. Such trust should be counteracted by nurturing a culture where patients expect to be asked occasionally to contribute to the common good.     

FROM MEDICAL RATIONING TO RATIONALIZING THE USE OF HUMAN RESOURCES FOR AIDS CARE AND TREATMENT IN AFRICA: A CASE FOR TASK SHIFTING

With a global commitment to scaling up AIDS care and treatment in resource‐poor settings for some of the most HIV‐affected countries in Africa, availability of antiretroviral treatment is no longer the principal obstacle to expanding access to treatment. A shortage of trained healthcare personnel to initiate treatment and manage patients represents a more challenging barrier to offering life‐saving treatment to all patients in need. Physician‐centered treatment policies accentuate this challenge. Despite evidence that task shifting for nurse‐centered AIDS patient care is effective and can alleviate severe physician shortages that currently obstruct treatment scale‐up, political commitment and policy action to support task shifting models of care has been slow to absent. In this paper we review the evidence in support of task shifting for AIDS treatment in Africa and argue that continued policy inaction amounts to unwarranted healthcare rationing and as such is ethically untenable.     

A NEW CELL STAGE IN THE HAPLOID‐DIPLOID LIFE CYCLE OF THE COLONY‐FORMING HAPTOPHYTE PHAEOCYSTIS ANTARCTICA AND ITS ECOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS1

Few members of the well‐studied marine phytoplankton taxa have such a complex and polymorphic life cycle as the genus Phaeocystis. However, despite the ecological and biogeochemical importance of Phaeocystis blooms, the life cycle of the major bloom‐forming species of this genus remains illusive and poorly resolved. At least six different life stages and up to 15 different functional components of the life cycle have been proposed. Our culture and field observations indicate that there is a previously unrecognized stage in the life cycle of P. antarctica G. Karst. This stage comprises nonmotile cells that range in size from ～4.2 to 9.8 μm in diameter and form aggregates in which interstitial spaces between cells are small or absent. The aggregates (hereafter called attached aggregates, AAs) adhere to available surfaces. In field samples, small AAs, surrounded by a colony skin, adopt an epiphytic lifestyle and adhere in most cases to setae or spines of diatoms. These AAs, either directly or via other life stages, produce the colonial life stage. Culture studies indicate that bloom‐forming, colonial stages release flagellates (microzoospores) that fuse and form AAs, which can proliferate on the bottom of culture vessels and can eventually reform free‐floating colonies. We propose that these AAs are a new stage in the life cycle of P. antarctica, which we believe to be the zygote, thus documenting sexual reproduction in this species for the first time.     

THE DYNAMICS OF RECIPROCAL SELECTIVE SWEEPS OF HOST RESISTANCE AND A PARASITE COUNTER‐ADAPTATION IN DROSOPHILA

Host–parasite coevolution can result in consecutive selective sweeps of host resistance alleles and parasite counter‐adaptations. To illustrate the dynamics of this important but little studied form of coevolution, we have modeled an ongoing arms race between Drosophila melanogaster and the vertically transmitted sigma virus, using parameters we estimated in the field. We integrate these results with previous work showing that the spread of a resistance allele of the ref(2)P gene in the host was followed by the spread of a virus genotype, which overcomes this resistance. In line with these observations, our model predicts that there can be rapid selective sweeps in both the host and parasite, which can drive large changes in the prevalence of infection. The virus will tend to be ahead in the arms race, as incomplete dominance slows down host adaptation and selection for host resistance is weaker than selection for parasites to overcome resistance—the “life‐dinner” principle. This asymmetry in the adaptation rates results in a partial sweep of the host resistance allele, as it loses its advantage part way through the selective sweep. This well‐understood natural system illustrates how the outcome of host–parasite coevolution is determined by different population genetic parameters in the field.     

DETAINED AND DRUGGED: A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE USE OF PHARMACEUTICALS FOR THE INTERROGATION OF SUSPECTS, PRISONERS, PATIENTS, AND POWS IN THE US

Using medical literature citations, Congressional hearings, and declassified documents this paper examines the uses of pharmaceuticals in the interrogation of vulnerable populations. From the use of IV relaxants on criminal suspects during the 1920s to the Global War on Terror, the nexus of drugs, testing, and interrogations will be explored in both the domestic and international contexts.     

THE COST OF RELIABLE SIGNALING: EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FOR PREDICTABLE VARIATION AMONG MALES IN A COST-BENEFIT TRADE-OFF BETWEEN SEXUALLY SELECTED TRAITS

Claw size of male fiddler crabs, Uca perplexa appears to be a target of female choice that increases the likelihood a female will initially approach a male. Here we show that a behavioral display trait, the maximum height that the tip of the claw reaches during a courtship wave, is a strong correlate of the subsequent likelihood that a female will visit a male's burrow (which is a prerequisite for a burrow mating). We experimentally manipulated claw mass, to test whether there is a trade-off between claw mass and wave height. Males with a metal weight added to their claw showed a large reduction in wave height, whereas control males (plastic added) showed no net change in wave height. There is therefore a trade-off between these two sexually selected traits (claw size and wave display). More importantly, the greater the initial wave height the smaller the subsequent decline in wave height. Assuming that variation in wave height is an index of quality, this variation in the cost-benefit trade-off is consistent with the requirements of a signaling system that conforms to the handicap principle when fitness is the multiplicative product of different fitness components. We conclude by discussing the ongoing difficulties in testing the handicap principle.     

内蒙古草原草场放牧退化模式研究及退化监测专家系统雏议

本文将定位研究与路线考察相结合,将放牧影响下草原的动态演替及其在牧压梯度上的空间变化相对比,研究了内蒙古主要草原草场的放牧退化模式,并在此基础上初步探讨了判别草场退化的数量指标和退化监测专家系统。1)植物种与牧压关系的分析,区别出放牧的定性和定量指示植物及宜中牧植物,并划分植物为不同的放牧生态种组。2)退化草原恢复过程的研究表明,根茎禾草的恢复快于丛生禾草;群落恢复过程是单稳态的,且恢复演替动态与其牧压梯度上的空间变化相对应。3)内蒙古高原主要草原草场在持续放牧影响下均趋同于冷蒿(Artemisia frigida)草原。冷蒿是最可靠的正定量放牧指示植物,但同时又是优良牧草和草原退化的阻击者。4)讨论了草原草场退化的概念,论述了草原逆向演替与草场退化的区别和联系,提出了区分草原的逆向演替为草场熟化和退化两个过程,并依草场群落与牧压的关系建立了判定草场是否退化及退化程度的数量指标。5)初步设计了草原草场退化监测—决策专家系统,包括监测、判别和决策三个步骤。