Diapause and survival in winter in two species of predatory bugs,Orius sauteri and O. minutus

The cause of differences in overwintering success between the sexes in Orius sauteri (Poppius) and O. minutus (Linnaeus) (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) was investigated in the laboratory. The survival rate of adults was examined in a screen house outdoors during the winters of 1995–1996 and 1996–1997. None of the males of either species survived until spring in either year. However, 63.9% and 40.5% of the females in O. sauteri and O. minutus, respectively, survived the winter in 1995–1996, and 54.5% and 43.2%, respectively, in 1996–1997. Most of the males died by early winter. In both species, the adult females reared under short days (= L11:D13) survived for a long period at 5 or 0°C, while the males reared under the same photoperiod died shortly after transfer to 5 or 0°C from 22°C. The males and females kept at same temperature conditions under long days (= L16:D8) died early. When nymphs were kept under long days at 22°C, the lipid content in the female and male adults of O. sauteri was 27.9% and 17.7%, respectively. When nymphs were kept under short days, their lipid content was significantly higher (41.1%) than that of those reared under long days for females, but lipid content was comparable in the males regardless of photoperiod (15.6%). In O. minutus, the mean lipid content was 27.2% in females and 19.0% in males under long days at 22°C, and 40.8% in females and 19.8% in males under short days. Thus, a large amount of lipid was accumulated only in females kept under short days in both species. These results suggest that short days induced diapause only in adult females but not in males. Due to the lack of diapause and shortage of lipid accumulation, males may not be able to survive the winter.     

The life cycle ofAmblyomma parvum Aragao, 1908 (Acari: Ixodidae) under laboratory conditions

A colony ofAmblyomma parvum was started with engorged females collected from cattle in the Province of Salta (25°01 S, 63°56 W), Argentina. The progeny of those ticks were fed on rabbits and the non-parasitic stages maintained at 27±1°C, 83–86% RH in darkness. The life cycle (prefeeding period not evaluated) had a mean duration of 99.6 days. The mean time (days) for the different phases of the cycle were as follows: feeding period of females, 8.0; pre-oviposition period, 5.7; oviposition period, 17.5; minimum incubation period of the eggs, 31.8; feeding period of larvae, 3.2; premoult period to nymphs, 10.9; feeding period of nymphs, 4.7; premoult period to adults, 17.8. The oviposition pattern was typical of an ixodid tick, including a linear relationship between weights of engorged females and the number of eggs laid (r=0.8659). The males increased 18% in weight after feeding on hosts (P<0.01). The mean recovery rates of larvae, nymphs and females were 28.2%, 95.3% and 90.7%, respectively. The nymphs moulting to females were heavier (6.8±0.69 mg) than those moulting to males (3.2±0.29 mg) (P<0.01). A comparison of biological values ofA. parvum with American and non-AmericanAmblyomma species is presented.     

The life cycle of Amblyomma neumanni Ribaga, 1902 (Acari: Ixodidae) in the laboratory

A colony of Amblyomma neumanni was started with engorged females collected from cattle in the province of Salta (24° 51S, 65° 33W), Argentina. The larvae and nymphs were fed on rabbits and the adults on calves. The non-parasitic stages were maintained in darkness at 27 ± 1°C and 83–86% RH. The life cycle (pre-feeding period not tested) had a mean duration of 205.7 days. The mean time (days) for the different phases of the cycle were as follows: feeding of females 8.8, pre-oviposition 23.8, oviposition 41.4, minimum egg incubation 76.1, feeding of larvae 8.5, pre-moult to nymphs 16.4, feeding of nymphs 7.9 and pre-moult to adults 22.8. The mean recovery rates of larvae, nymphs and females were 83.8, 85.6 and 89.3%, respectively. The nymphs moulting to females were heavier (8.1 ± 2.34 mg) than those moulting to males (6.0 ± 2.34 mg; p < 0.01), but their range of engorgement weight showed overlap (2.3–16.2 versus 2.2–12.8 mg, respectively). Two gynandromorphs were detected between the nymphs. A comparison of biological parameters of A. neumanni with other American Amblyomma species from mammals is presented. © Rapid Science Ltd. 1998     

Rapid cold hardening in the olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae under laboratory and field conditions

A rapid cold hardening response was studied in females and males of the olive fruit fly Bactrocera (Dacus) oleae. When laboratory-reared females and males were transferred and maintained from the rearing temperature of 24 °C for 2 h to –6.5 °C approximately 5% survived. However, conditioning of both females and males for 2 h at various temperatures from 0 to 10 °C before their exposure for 2 h to –6.5 °C increased survival to 80 to 92%. A similar rapid cold hardening response in both females and males was also induced through gradual cooling of the flies at a rate of approximately 0.4 °C per min. The rapid increase in cold tolerance after prior conditioning of the flies to low temperatures, was rapidly lost when they returned to a higher temperature of 24 °C. In the field, in late February and early March, females and males were capable of a rapid cold hardening response. After exposure to the critical temperature they suffered a high mortality when tested in the afternoon and low mortality early in the morning on consecutive days, probably because of differences in the prevailing field temperatures a few hours before testing. This plasticity of cold tolerance gained through rapid cold hardening may allow the flies to survive during periods of the year with great fluctuation in circadian temperatures.     

Biology of Ixodes (Pholeoixodes) hexagonus under laboratory conditions. Part I. Immature stages

A rearing method for Ixodes (Pholeoixodes) hexagonus, the hedgehog tick, was established which enabled the life cycle of immature stages to be studied under laboratory conditions. Larvae were fed on Swiss mice and nymphs on the cars of New Zealand rabbits. The feeding time of the larvae and nymphs on both hosts was 4–17 days. Larvae moulted to nymphs 15–21 days after detachment from mice. The premoulting period was 13–26 days for newly emerged males and 15–27 days for females. Engorged nymphs which developed into males weighed less (5.64±0.91 mg) than those that developed into females (6.019±88mg). The sex ratio (male: female) under laboratory conditions was 1:1.13.     

Studies on the critical water mass and the rehydration potential of unfed adult Dermacentor marginatus and D. reticulatus ticks (Acari: Ixodidae)

In unfed adult Dermacentor marginatus and D. reticulatusticks survival and capability to restore water balance after loss of high percentages of exchangeable body water were investigated. Furthermore, it was examined how frequently dehydrated ticks of these species were able to rehydrate by uptake of atmospheric water vapour. The critical water mass, defined as the water mass remaining in a tick at the nonambulatory state, differed between light and heavy weight groups and averaged 62.4 and 55.8%, respectively, of the total body water of fully hydrated ticks in females, and 54.4 and 51.1% respectively, in males of D. marginatus. In D. reticulatus, the corresponding figures were 55.9 and 54.7% in females and 52.1 and 52.7% in males. All ticks survived dehydration to 50, 75 or 100% of the critical water mass, and 96.7% of the D. marginatus ticks and 95.8% of the D. reticulatus ticks compensated water losses during subsequent incubation at 95% relative humidity (r.h.) and 20°C. Unfed females and males of both Dermacentor spp. were capable to balance water loss very frequently over a period of several months. When ticks were repeatedly dehydrated at 0% r.h. for 7 days and rehydrated at 95% r.h. and 20°C, females and males of D. marginatus reached the 50% mortality after 22 and 29 cycles of de- and rehydration, respectively, during 211 and 285 days, respectively. In D. reticulatus, 50% of females and males survived 23 and 17 cycles, respectively, during 248 and 186 days, respectively. Rehydration weights were as high or even higher as those of ticks kept at permanent 95% r.h.     

Survival of six species of African ticks in relation to saturation deficits

The survival of unfed males and females of six species of African ticks was monitored at five different saturation deficits at constant temperature (25°C). The survivorship curves for each species comprised a pre-mortality period, prior to when ticks started to die and a mortality period corresponding to a rapid increase in the mortality rate. Longevity was defined as pre-mortality plus mortality. A negative correlation between the longevity of the ticks and the saturation deficits was found with ticks surviving longer at lower deficits. The survival of males and females was similar. At low saturation deficits (2–4 mmHg) Amblyomma hebraeum survived the longest periods (74 weeks). Some correlation was found between the tick survival under dehydrating conditions and habitat associations. Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Haemaphysalis leachii, the most mesic in distribution, had the shortest longevity (21 and 13 weeks, respectively) at high saturation deficits (7–21 mmHg). Hyalomma marginatum rufipes, the most xerophilic in distribution, had the longest survival (39.3±10.5 weeks) at high saturation deficits. Other factors apart from the adult survival should be taken into account when accounting for the tick distribution, in particular the tolerance of earlier developmental stages to desiccation.     

Life history of the tick parasitoid Ixodiphagus hookeri (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in Kenya

We conducted laboratory and field experiments to elucidate the life history of Ixodiphagus hookeri, a parasitoid of the ixodid tick Amblyomma variegatum in Western Kenya. Ixodiphagus hookeri females oviposited in unfed host nymphs as well as engorged nymphs, but rarely in engorged larvae. While I. hookeri developed to adults in engorged nymphs, the eggs laid in unfed nymphs disappeared within 2 days after oviposition. As temperature increased, development time of I. hookeri from oviposition to adult emergence in engorged nymphs decreased from 46 days at 23 °C to 35 days at 28 °C, and their immature survival in engorged nymphs decreased from 67% at 23 °C to 22% at 28 °C. No parasitoid adult emerged from hosts at 30 °C. Individual hosts parasitized by single females produced 42–53 adult wasps, 73% of which were females. As a typical pro-ovigenic species, I. hookeri females had an average of 84 mature eggs at emergence and lived only for a few days. When laboratory-reared, unfed nymphs of A. variegatum were attached to cattle for 4–9 days in subsistence farmers’ fields in Western Kenya, 25% of the engorged nymphs and 4% of the unfed nymphs on cattle were parasitized by I. hookeri, demonstrating that I. hookeri females search for and oviposit in A. variegatum nymphs on cattle. Unlike other strains of I. hookeri that overwinter as eggs in unfed nymphs, I. hookeri could continuously reproduce throughout the year in Western Kenya.     

The life cycle ofRhipicephalus lunulatus Neumann, 1907 (Acarina:Ixodidae) under laboratory conditions,with notes on its ecology in Zimbabwe

The durations of the developmental periods ofRhipicephalus lunulatus at 25°C and 87% RH were: preoviposition, 2–9 days; oviposition, 29–34 days; minimum incubation, 11–27 days; nymphal premoult period, 11–23 days; and adult premoult period, 19–30 days. The durations of the feeding periods on a rabbit were: 3–7 days for larvae and 4–11 days for nymphs. Adult feeding was completed on a rabbit and a sheep in 10–22 days in January and 14–64 days in September, and only fertilized females completed engorgement. The mean number of eggs laid by engorged females was 4732, with 95% being laid within the first 16 days. In the southeastern lowveld of Zimbabwe adult ticks were most abundant on cattle between November and December, and their preferred sites of attachment were the legs and tail. Other hosts of adultR. lunulatus were impala (Aepyceros melampus), warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus), kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and eland (Taurotragus oryx).     

Field and laboratory studies on the timing of oviposition and hatching of the western black-legged tick, Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae)

The timing of oviposition and hatching of Ixodes pacificus was investigated in the field and at constant temperatures in the laboratory. Replete females held at temperatures between 9 and 29°C began depositing eggs a mean of 9–70 days after drop off. Egg masses held between 12 and 25°C commenced hatching 25–178 days after the onset of oviposition. Eggs held at 9 or 29°C did not hatch. The lower temperature thresholds for development (LTD) for oviposition and hatching were 6.5 and 9°C, respectively. The number of degree days required for oviposition and hatching was 173 and 588, respectively. Replete females placed in the field on 2 December through to 8 March deposited eggs from 2 February through to 24 April; the eggs commenced hatching between 2 July and 21 August. Unfed larvae from two of 20 egg masses survived through the winter and fed readily when exposed to deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) on 22 April. Replete larvae were returned to the field and moulted between 9 and 21 August. Larvae exposed to deer mice in August, 4 weeks after hatching, also fed readily. Although further studies are needed to clarify the timing of nymphal development, the present study suggests that I. pacificus requires more than 1 year to complete its life cycle.     

The life cycle of Amblyomma pseudoparvum (Acari: Ixodidae) in the laboratory

A colony of Amblyomma pseudoparvum was started with male and female ticks collected from the cavy-like rodent Dolichotis salinicola, in the Province of Salta, Argentina. These ticks and their progenies were fed on rabbits and the non-parasitic stages maintained in darkness at 27±1°C, 83–86% RH. The life cycle (pre-feeding and oviposition periods not tested) of A. pseudoparvum had a mean duration of 90.9 days. The mean time (days) for the different periods of the cycle were as follows: Feeding of females, 12.3; pre-oviposition, 5.1; minimum egg incubation, 33.4; feeding of larvae, 5.6; pre-moult to nymphs, 11.5; feeding of nymphs, 6.9; pre-moult to adults, 16.1. The mean recovery rates of larvae, nymphs and females were 16.0%, 18.7% and 53.0%, respectively.     

Cold storage ofPhytoseiulus persimilis (Phytoseiidae)

Phytoseiulus persimilis is commerelally mass-reared for use as a biological control agent for spider mites, primarilyTetranychus urticae, and cold storage is a potentially valuable aspect of mass-production. Cold storage ofP. persimilis in empty containers was found to be unsatisfactory, but provision of moisture during cold storage greatly increased survival. Provision of food further increased survival even though the mites were stored at temperatures below their threshold for development of 11°C. When food was provided, survival at 7.5°C was 97% after 4 weeks and 80% after 6 weeks. Subsequent longevity and fecundity of mites that survived 8 weeks at 7.5°C was comparable to mites taken directly from mass-rearing cultures. Survival of mites packaged in bran or vermiculite and held at 6°C for 10 days ranged from 75% to 85% and was not decreased by agitating the containers to simulate shipping. However, survival of mites held in bran or vermiculite at 5°C or 8°C for 4 weeks was poor, ranging from 0–19%, due to growth of mould in the media.Phytoseiulus persimilis can be successfully stored for 4 to 6 weeks in containers provisioned only with food and moisture; granular media used for distribution of the mites should be added just prior to shipping.     

Cold-hardiness of Dermacentor marginatus (Acari: Ixodidae)

The cold-hardiness of Dermacentor marginatus using laboratory-reared offspring of ticks collected in Germany was characterized. Investigations of unfed stages revealed that adult ticks suffered 50% mortality at –10°C after 4–5 months, but larvae and nymphs suffered mortality within few days, whereas –15°C was lethal for all stages within a very short period. Larval hatch and moulting of engorged larvae and nymphs did not occur at 10°C. Embryonic development of eggs with larval hatch was considerably reduced by exposure of eggs to 10°C. Engorged females did not lay eggs at 10°C, the oviposition capability, however, persisted over 6 months at 10°C, 5 months at 5°C, 3 months at 0°C and 2 months at –10°C without substantial decrease of the oviposition capacity or reduction of viable eggs. These results present evidence that unfed adult ticks are the ecoepidemiologically most effective stages, which are capable to tolerate long and extremely cold winters without substantial impairment of the population density. It is also considered that engorged females interrupt their oviposition at low and subzero temperatures delaying it for months and so contribute in bypassing winter conditions. None of the stages survived supercooling indicating that D. marginatus is freeze intolerant. Mean supercooling point (SCP) ranged between –26°C in eggs and –12, 6°C in engorged females. Compared with eggs, the SCP of the other stages was significantly higher. In conclusion, the SCP is considered to have no predictive value in the context with cold-hardiness.     

Control of diapause in codling moth larvae

Diapause in a New Zealand strain of codling moth (Cydia pomonella Linnaeus [Lepidoptera: Olethreutidae]) was induced in larvae by photoperiods of 15 h or less. Once diapause had been initiated, it could not be terminated by any combination of conditions tested for at least 20 days after cocooning. In diapausing larvae a low rate of pupation occurred at 25 °C under a long day (18 h) photoperiod. A high rate of pupation was achieved under a long day regime when larvae were decocooned, and provided with apple as nourishment. Diapause could be terminated predictably in 94–100% of larvae by 1) conditioning at 15 °C and constant darkness for periods of 40–100 days, then 2) chilling at 2±2 °C and constant darkness for 20–50 days followed by 3) any post-chill condition periods at 25 °C, 18 h photoperiod. Complete diapause termination was achieved when 100 days conditioning was followed by 30 days or 50 days post-chill period. Under these conditions, 76% termination occurred in the post-chill period after 10 days, and 93% after 25 days.To terminate diapause in codling moth larvae, we recommend that a 100 days conditioning followed by 30 days chilling and 50 days post chilling periods be used.     

Induction of sexual reproduction and resting egg production in Brachionus Plicatilis reared in sea water

Brachionus plicatilis raised in our laboratory in sea water reproduces asexually even under high crowding conditions (at least 40 individuals per ml). Amictic females were induced to produce mictic females, males and resting eggs by reducing the concentration of the sea water culture medium. Mictic females and males appeared predominantly among the progeny produced by the amictic females during 4 days following their transfer into 25% sea water. Resting eggs appeared first 5–12 days after the onset of the experiment. Following the disappearance of males, the culture consisted of amictic females.Resting eggs produced by the method described above may be preserved for at least three months at –14°C or by desiccation at room temperature. Under the appropriate experimental conditions, resting eggs hatch into amictic females. Since B. plicatilis is one of the most commonly used food sources of fish larvae in aquaculture, the methods reported here may offer an easy and versatile way of preserving rotifer culture stock to be used on demand.     

Effects of oxygen deficiency on survival and glycogen content of Chironomus anthracinus (Diptera,Chironomidae) under laboratory and field conditions

Growth and glycogen content of Chironomus anthracinus in Lake Esrom, Denmark was examined during summer stratification in 1992 and 1993. Simultaneously, effects of oxygen deficiency on glycogen utilization and survival were experimentally studied. The population consisted of almost fullgrown 4th instar larvae in 1992 and 2nd and 3rd instar larvae in 1993. Growth rate and glycogen content changed as hypolimnetic oxygen deficiency increased. During a 1st phase of stratification dry weight and glycogen content increased (2nd and 3rd instars) or was almost constant (4th instar) but decreased significantly during the following 2nd phase. This change from growth to degrowth and utilization of endogenous glycogen reserves correlated with a change in the thickness of the microxic layer (<0.2 mg O₂ 1^–1) above the sediment surface. The layer increased from 2–3 m in phase 1 to 4–5 m in phase 2, and we suggest that this deteriorated the oxygen conditions and resulted in a change in larval energy metabolism from fully aerobic during the 1st phase to partly anaerobic in the 2nd phase. During the 2nd phase larval metabolism was estimated at less than 20% of normoxic rate. Experimental exposure of the larvae to anoxia indicated highly different survival of young larvae (2nd and 3rd instars) and older larvae (large 4th instars). The morality of young larvae was 50% after three days in anoxia at 10 °C, whereas only 25% of the older larvae had died after 3–4 weeks under similar conditions. Extending the treatment, however, resulted in increased death rate of the 4th instar larvae with only 10% surviving after seven weeks. The anaerobic metabolism of 4th instar larvae as estimated from glycogen degradation at 10 °C was 5% of normoxia in the interval from 0–5 days but 1.5% in the interval from 20–25 days. It is concluded that survival of C. anthracinus in anoxia is very limited, but traces of oxygen in the environment allowing for faint aerobic metabolism prolong the survival time of the larvae from a few days (2nd and 3rd instars) or a few weeks (4th instar) to probably 3–4 months.     

Survival of sub-zero temperatures by two South Georgian beetles (Coleoptera,Perimylopidae)

Summary The ability of adults and larvae of two species of perimylopid beetles (Hydromedion sparsutum, Perimylops antarcticus) to survive sub-zero temperatures was studied at Husvik, South Georgia in summer during October–December 1990. Experiments determined their survival at constant sub-zero temperatures, their lower lethal temperatures and individual supercooling points. The effects of cooling rates (0.015°, 0.5° and 2.0°C min^–1) and starvation on survival were also assessed. Mean supercooling points of field-collected individuals of both species were in the range -3.0° to -5.4°C with Perimylops having a deeper capacity (ca. 1.5°C) for supercooling relative to Hydromedion. The former species also survived freezing temperatures significantly better than the latter and its mean lower lethal temperature was 2.5°C lower. At a constant temperature of -8.5°C, the median survival times for Perimylops adults and larvae were 19 and 26 h respectively, whilst both stages of Hydromedion died within 3 h. The three cooling rates resulted in significantly different median survival temperatures for adult Hydromedion with 0.5°C min^–1 producing maximum survival. Prior starvation did not have a significant influence on the survival of either species at sub-zero temperatures although both adults survived less well. The results support field observations on the habitats and distribution of these insects, and suggest differing degrees of freezing tolerance.     

Development of Encarsia bimaculata (Heraty and Polaszek) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) in Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) nymphs

Encarsia bimaculata was recently described from India as a potentially useful parasitoid of Bemisia tabaci. Its developmental biology was studied in the laboratory at 25–30 °C and 70–75% RH. Results showed that E. bimaculata is a solitary, arrhenotokous, heteronomous, autoparasitoid. Mated females laid eggs internally in B. tabaci nymphs that developed as primary parasitoids. Males developed as hyperparasitoids, either in females of their own species or in other primary aphelinid parasitoids. Superparasitism was common under cage conditions. Both sexes have an egg, three larval instars, prepupal, and pupal stages. Development from egg to adult took 12.70 ± 2.10 days for females and 14.48 ± 2.60 days for males. Individual B. tabaci nymphs were examined for E. bimaculata parasitization using three isozymes: esterase, malate dehydrogenase, and xanthine dehydrogenase. All three isozymes showed differential banding patterns that identified E. bimaculata parasitized or unparasitized B. tabaci nymphs.     

Freezing and cellular metabolism in the gall fly larva,Eurosta solidaginis

Summary The effects of extracellular freezing on intracellular metabolism were monitored over both a short (9 h) and long (12 weeks) time course using the freeze tolerant larvae of the gall fly,Eurosta solidaginis.The process of freezing, monitored over the short time course, had no effect upon cellular energy levels (adenylates, arginine phosphate) but initiated a rise in glucose-6-P and lactate levels. This suggests that freezing initiates a shift towards glycolysis as the predominant mode of energy production. The process of thawing at 3°C (after 24 h at –16°C) also had no effect, even transient, on cellular energy levels demonstrating that thawing and the rapid redistribution of water and solutes which must accompany it does not disrupt cellular metabolism. During thawing accumulated lactate was quickly cleared with a t 1/2 of 20–30 min.Long term freezing at –16°C had dramatic effects on energy metabolism. Freezing for up to 1 week had minimal effects with only a small drop in arginine phosphate reserves and an increase in lactate content noted. Between 1 and 2 weeks of freezing, however, larvae showed strong signs of energy stress. The arginine phosphate pool fell from 75% to 30% of control levels, ATP content dropped by 50% and energy charge dropped to 0.75. This state, with continued lactate accumulation, was maintained through 4 weeks of freezing. Between 6 and 12 weeks of freezing energy stress became even greater. Phosphagen and ATP contents dropped to 5 and 25% of control values and energy charge decreased to about 0.50. Despite this stress, however, 94% of larvae survived 12 weeks of freezing with an 86% hatch rate of adults. The data demonstrate that the larvae can survive prolonged periods of winter freezing drawing upon glycolysis and phosphagen reserves to supply the continued basal energy demands of the cell.     

Temperature influence on life table statistics of the chicken miteDermanyssus gallinae (Acari: Dermanyssidae)

An age-specific life table for the chicken miteDermanyssus gallinae (DeGeer, 1778) was based on various observations carried out at 25°C. The generation time was calculated to be 16.8 days; the intrinsic rate of natural increase was 0.12 per day, and the net reproductive rate was 7.2. A nonlinear function was found satisfactory to describe the developmental rate of the different immature lifestages at temperatures below 40°C. The stage-specific survival of the immature life-stages was generally high between 10 and 37°C, but decreased quickly outside this temperature range. Most of the eggs were laid during the first three weeks of the adult life. The proportion of surviving females rapidly decreases after moulting to the adult stage. At a temperature of 30°C, the highest number of eggs (3 eggs per day) was laid.