Leges sine moribus vanae: does language make moral thinking possible?

Does language make moral cognition possible? Some authors like Andy Clark have argued for a positive answer whereby language and the ways people use it mark a fundamental divide between humans and all other animals with respect to moral thinking (Clark, Mind and morals: essays on cognitive science and ethics. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1996; Moral Epistemol Nat Can J Philos Suppl XXVI, 2000a; Moral Epistemol Nat Can J Philos Suppl XXVI, 2000b; Philosophy of mental representation. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 37–43 and discussion, 44–61, 2002). I take issue with Clark’s view and argue that language is probably unnecessary for the emergence of moral cognition. I acknowledge, however, that humans unlike other animals seem to posses what Haugeland in Philosophy of mental representation. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2002) terms ‘norm-hungriness’: an idiosyncratic need or desire to create and abide by a multitude of norms. Our peculiar norm-hungriness, I suggest, depends on what can be called florid control rather than on language.     

Population Level Causation and a Unified Theory of Natural Selection

Sober (1984) presents an account of selection motivated by the view that one property can causally explain the occurrence of another only if the first plays a unique role in the causal production of the second. Sober holds that a causal property will play such a unique role if it is a population level cause of its effect, and on this basis argues that there is selection for a trait T only if T is a population level cause of survival and reproductive success. Sterelny and Kitcher (1988) claim against Sober that some traits directly subject to selection will not satisfy the probabilistic condition on population level causation. In this paper I show that Sober has the resources to resist the Sterelny-Kitcher complaint, but I argue that not all traits that satisfy the probabilistic condition play the required unique role in the production of their effects.     

Unifying Genetic Canalization,Genetic Constraint,and Genotype-by-Environment Interaction: QTL by Genomic Background by Environment Interaction of Flowering Time in Boechera stricta

Natural populations exhibit substantial variation in quantitative traits. A quantitative trait is typically defined by its mean and variance, and to date most genetic mapping studies focus on loci altering trait means but not (co)variances. For single traits, the control of trait variance across genetic backgrounds is referred to as genetic canalization. With multiple traits, the genetic covariance among different traits in the same environment indicates the magnitude of potential genetic constraint, while genotype-by-environment interaction (GxE) concerns the same trait across different environments. While some have suggested that these three attributes of quantitative traits are different views of similar concepts, it is not yet clear, however, whether they have the same underlying genetic mechanism. Here, we detect quantitative trait loci (QTL) influencing the (co)variance of phenological traits in six distinct environments in Boechera stricta, a close relative of Arabidopsis. We identified nFT as the QTL altering the magnitude of phenological trait canalization, genetic constraint, and GxE. Both the magnitude and direction of nFT''s canalization effects depend on the environment, and to our knowledge, this reversibility of canalization across environments has not been reported previously. nFT''s effects on trait covariance structure (genetic constraint and GxE) likely result from the variable and reversible canalization effects across different traits and environments, which can be explained by the interaction among nFT, genomic backgrounds, and environmental stimuli. This view is supported by experiments demonstrating significant nFT by genomic background epistatic interactions affecting phenological traits and expression of the candidate gene, FT. In contrast to the well-known canalization gene Hsp90, the case of nFT may exemplify an alternative mechanism: Our results suggest that (at least in traits with major signal integrators such as flowering time) genetic canalization, genetic constraint, and GxE may have related genetic mechanisms resulting from interactions among major QTL, genomic backgrounds, and environments.     

Book review

THE EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY OF PLANTS, by Karl J. Niklas. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1997. ISBN 0–226–58082–2; price $65.00 (cloth). ISBN 0–226–58083–0; price $19.95 (Paper).     

A comparative analysis of genetic diversity in medicinal Chrysanthemum morifolium based on morphology, ISSR and SRAP markers

The diversity and genetic relationship among 29 populations of Chrysanthemum morifolium, one of Chrysanthemum indicum and one of Chrysanthemum nankingense from China were analyzed using morphological traits and molecular markers. Twenty morphological traits were scored as well as 182 ISSR marker-fragments, as amplified by 22 primers [the percentage of polymorphic bands (PPB): 81.87%], and 243 SRAP marker-fragments as generated by 26 primer pairs (PPB: 75.72%). Mantel’s test indicated significant correlation (r = 0.624) of morphological trait and SRAP. By contrast, the morphological trait showed low correlation with ISSR (r = 0.246). Cluster analysis showed groupings of the accessions according to all four methods correlated well with their geographic region of origin, and most populations from the south of China were classified into one cluster and most populations from the north of China were classified into another cluster. Finally, an appropriate strategy for conserving the C. morifolium germplasm was proposed.     

Error management,reliability and cognitive evolution

The paper offers a partial vindication of Sterelny’s view on the role of error rates and reliability in his theory of decoupled representation based on modelling techniques borrowed from the biological literature on evolution in stochastic environments. In the case of a tight link between tracking states and behaviour, I argue that in its full generality Sterelny’s account instantiates the base-rate fallacy. With regard to non-tightly linked behaviour, I show that Sterelny’s account can be vindicated subject to an adequate evolutionary model and a suitable notion of reliability.     

Review essay: Nationalism,the past and the present: The case of Sri Lanka

Jonathan Spencer, A SINHALA VILLAGE IN A TIME OF TROUBLE. POLITICS AND CHANGE IN RURAL SRI LANKA, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990, 285pp., NPL.

Jonathan Spencer (ed.), SRI LANKA. HISTORY AND THE ROOTS OF CONFLICT, London: Routledge, 1990, 253pp., £35.00.

Manning Nash, THE CAULDRON OF ETHNICITY IN THE MODERN WORLD, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1989, 142pp., $8.95.     

Trait Values,Not Trait Plasticity,Best Explain Invasive Species' Performance in a Changing Environment

The question of why some introduced species become invasive and others do not is the central puzzle of invasion biology. Two of the principal explanations for this phenomenon concern functional traits: invasive species may have higher values of competitively advantageous traits than non-invasive species, or they may have greater phenotypic plasticity in traits that permits them to survive the colonization period and spread to a broad range of environments. Although there is a large body of evidence for superiority in particular traits among invasive plants, when compared to phylogenetically related non-invasive plants, it is less clear if invasive plants are more phenotypically plastic, and whether this plasticity confers a fitness advantage. In this study, I used a model group of 10 closely related Pinus species whose invader or non-invader status has been reliably characterized to test the relative contribution of high trait values and high trait plasticity to relative growth rate, a performance measure standing in as a proxy for fitness. When grown at higher nitrogen supply, invaders had a plastic RGR response, increasing their RGR to a much greater extent than non-invaders. However, invasive species did not exhibit significantly more phenotypic plasticity than non-invasive species for any of 17 functional traits, and trait plasticity indices were generally weakly correlated with RGR. Conversely, invasive species had higher values than non-invaders for 13 of the 17 traits, including higher leaf area ratio, photosynthetic capacity, photosynthetic nutrient-use efficiency, and nutrient uptake rates, and these traits were also strongly correlated with performance. I conclude that, in responding to higher N supply, superior trait values coupled with a moderate degree of trait variation explain invasive species'' superior performance better than plasticity per se.     

In other words: external modifiers in Georgian

This paper addresses the issue of stranded modifiers and null heads through two otherwise unrelated constructions in Georgian. In each construction, a word in the oblique form modifies part of the complex word following it. It is shown that null modifiers in Georgian have a form different from that of the modifiers in the constructions at issue, and the latter cannot have null heads. However, Baker’s [Baker, M. C. (1988). Incorporation: A theory of grammatical function changing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.] alternative approach is not easily compatible with the derivational morphology of these examples. I propose an analysis of external modifiers in terms of Beard [Beard, R. (1991). Natural Language and Linguistic Theory, 9, 195–229.], which addresses other bracketing paradoxes by permitting “the semantic features of an attribute [to] subjoin with one and only one semantic feature of its head” (1991: 208). In this way I suggest a unified analysis of noun incorporation and derived structures, drawing on a mechanism that must be included in the grammar for non-derived words as well.     

Pluralism, Antirealism, and the Units of Selection

In an important article, Kim Sterelny and Philip Kitcher (1988) challenge the common assumption that for any biological phenomenon requiring a selectionist explanation, it is possible to identify a uniquely correct account of the relevant selection process. They argue that selection events can be modeled in any of a number of different, equally correct ways. They call their view 'Pluralism,' and explicitly connect it with various antirealist positions in the philosophy of science. I critically evaluate Sterelny and Kitcher's Pluralism along with its attendant antirealist theses. In particular, I argue that there are serious problems with their pluralistic antirealism regarding units of selection. By correctly diagnosing these problems a more adequate position can be constructed. I defend such a position, which I designate Inclusive Hierarchical Monism, and show how it captures the important virtues of Sterelny and Kitcher's approach while avoiding its problems.     

Linkage map construction using InDel and SSR markers and QTL analysis of heading traits in Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.

Cabbage heading traits are important quantitative traits that greatly affect both quality and yield of cabbage. However, the genetic control of these traits remains unclear. To detect quantitative trait loci (QTLs) associated with heading traits, a double haploid (DH) population with 196 lines was created from a cabbage hybrid 01–20 × 96–100. A genetic map with insertion–deletion and simple sequence repeat markers was constructed based on the DH population, with a total length of 934.06 cM and average interval length of 2.3 cM between adjacent markers. Field experiments in three seasons were carried out to evaluate the heading traits, including head mature period (Hm), head weight (Hw), core length (Cl), head vertical diameter (Hvd), and the ratio of Cl to Hvd (Cl/Hvd). Using the map and the trait data, 13 reliable QTLs in total were identified and 5 were found in more than one season based on the adjusted means of three seasons. Major QTLs were identified for Hm (R ² = 40.4, LOD = 14.84), Hw (R ² = 28.6, LOD = 9.83), Cl (R ² = 38.8, LOD = 15.73), Hvd (R ² = 19.2, LOD = 9.26), and Cl/Hvd (R ² = 38.8, LOD = 12.75). The most significant QTLs were Hm3.1, Cl3.1, and Cl/Hvd3.1, which were detected in three seasons with the maximum contribution rate of almost 40 %. Six active regions that harbored more than one QTL were identified on five chromosomes, and one of them contained major QTLs associated with five traits. The QTLs obtained in this study should be useful for marker-assisted selection in cabbage breeding and for understanding the genetic control of these traits.     

Citizenship,ethnicity and multiculturalism: Post‐national membership between Utopia and reality

Neil Bissondath, SELLING ILLUSIONS: THE CULT OF MULTI‐CULTURALISM IN CANADA, Toronto: Penguin Books Canada, 1994, 234 pp., $16.99 (paper).

David A. Hollinger, POSTETHNIC AMERICA: BEYOND MULTI‐CULTURALISM, New York: Basic Books, 1995, 210 pp., $22.00

Will Kymlicka, MULTICULTURAL CITIZENSHIP, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, 280 pp., npl.

Yasemin Nuhoglu Soysal, LIMITS OF CITIZENSHIP: MIGRANTS AND POSTNATIONAL MEMBERSHIP IN EUROPE, Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1994 (paper), npl.     

Ethnicity,race and class in the United States

Orlando Patterson, Ethnic Chauvinism: The Reactionary Impulse, New York: Stein and Day, 1977, 347 pp., $15.00.

William Julius Wilson, The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1978, xxi + 204 pp. £8.85.     

The classics revisited

Franz Boas, RACE, LANGUAGE AND CULTURE, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Midway Reprint, 1988, 647 pp, £19.95 and $27.50, (paperback only).

V. G. Kiernan, THE LORDS OF HUMAN KIND, London: Century‐Hutchinson/ Cresset Library, 1989, viii + 336 pp., £6.25 paperback.     

Homology, female orgasm and the forgotten argument of Donald Symons

The ‘byproduct account’ of female orgasm, a subject of renewed debate since Lloyd (The case of the female orgasm, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2005), is universally attributed to Symons (The evolution of human sexuality, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1979). While this is correct to the extent that he linked it to the adaptive value of male orgasm, I argue that the attribution of the theory as we understand it to Symons is based on a serious and hitherto unrecognised misinterpretation. Symons had a different explanation of why women can orgasm, and beneath this explanation lies an obscure line of argument, including a particularly obscure use of the word ‘homologous’.     

Decomposing the feminine suffixes of Modern Hebrew: a morpho-syntactic analysis

The feminine suffixes -at, -et, -it, -ut, -ot of Modern Hebrew are regularly treated as morphologically simplex. In this paper, I argue for the decomposition of -it and -ut into -i-t and -u-t on the basis of semantic, phonological and morphological evidence. The paper has two parts. In the first part, the data and the main claims are presented. The feminine suffix is defined as -t. The distribution and function of -i- and -u- in the feminine suffixes are defined, and both -i- and -u- are shown to carry similar functions elsewhere in the language, without the feminine -t. A novel analysis of the plural analysis is also presented. The second part is an application to the data of Lowenstamm’s (Derivational affixes as roots (phasal spellout meets English stress shift). Ms., LLF, 2010, to appear) specific view of Distributed Morphology (Halle and Marantz in The view from building 20, pp. 111–176. MIT Press, Cambridge, 1993). Through this formal analysis, -i- is shown to be a structurally expletive morpheme. The morpheme -u- is analyzed as its [-concrete] alternant. The latter is shown to appear in both concatenative and non-concatenative suffixes, thus illustrating an understudied possible consequence of the non-concatenative nature of Semitic morphology. The framework adopted—the version of Distributed Morphology in Lowenstamm (Roots, Oxford University Publishing, to appear)—receives support in the success of the analysis.     

Pride,personality, and the evolutionary foundations of human social status

Based on evolutionary logic, Henrich and Gil-White [Evolution and Human Behavior, 22(3), 165–196] distinguished between two routes to attaining social status in human societies: dominance, based on intimidation, and prestige, based on the possession of skills or expertise. Independently, emotion researchers Tracy and Robins [Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(3), 506–525] demonstrated two distinct forms of pride: hubristic and authentic. Bridging these two lines of research, this paper examines whether hubristic and authentic pride, respectively, may be part of the affective-motivational suite of psychological adaptations underpinning the status-obtaining strategies of dominance and prestige. Support for this hypothesis emerged from two studies employing self-reports (Study 1), and self-and peer-reports of group members on collegiate athletic teams (Study 2). Results from both studies showed that hubristic pride is associated with dominance, whereas authentic pride is associated with prestige. Moreover, the two facets of pride are part of a larger suite of distinctive psychological traits uniquely associated with dominance or prestige. Specifically, dominance is positively associated with traits such as narcissism, aggression, and disagreeableness, whereas prestige is positively associated with traits such as genuine self-esteem, agreeableness, conscientiousness, achievement, advice-giving, and prosociality. Discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for our understanding of the evolutionary origins of pride and social status, and the interrelations among emotion, personality, and status attainment.     

Simulation of biological evolution and the NFL theorems

William Dembski (No free lunch: why specified complexity cannot be purchased without intelligence, 2002) claimed that the NFL theorems from optimization theory render darwinian biological evolution impossible. Häggström (Biology and Philosophy 22:217–230, 2007) argued that the NFL theorems are not relevant for biological evolution at all, since the assumptions of the NFL theorems are not met. Although I agree with Häggström (Biology and Philosophy 22:217–230, 2007), in this article I argue that the NFL theorems should be interpreted as dealing with an extreme case within a much broader context. This broader context is in fact relevant for scientific research of certain evolutionary processes; not in the sense that the theorems can be used to draw conclusions about any intelligent design inference, but in the sense that it helps us to interpret computer simulations of evolutionary processes. As a result of this discussion, I will argue that from simulations, we do not learn much about how complexity arises in the universe. This position is in contrast with certain claims in the literature that I will discuss.     

Veiled Nannies and Secular Futures in France

ABSTRACT

This article focuses on recent French efforts to expand legal regulation of religious symbols to childcare. Controversies over ‘veiled nannies’ serve as points of departure for investigating laïcité – French secularism – through which religion is regulated. The investigation is based on fieldwork among Muslim women in Marseille and on the analysis of legal decisions, official documents, and media. The debates on whether to legislate on religious symbols in the domain of childcare reveal how the line between religion and politics, and private and public is continuously redrawn through state efforts to cultivate and govern (secular) Republican selves. Drawing on Agrama’s [2012a. Questioning Secularism: Islam, Sovereignty and the Rule of Law in Egypt. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press] conceptualisation of secularism as a ‘problem-space’, I argue that legal regulation of religious symbols institutionalises a ‘secular suspicion’ at the heart of efforts to imagine and govern French society and its future, a future in which Muslims increasingly find it difficult to imagine themselves.     

Two Mediterranean annuals feature high within-population trait variability and respond differently to a precipitation gradient

Intraspecific trait variability plays an important role in species adaptation to climate change. However, it still remains unclear how plants in semi-arid environments respond to increasing aridity. We investigated the intraspecific trait variability of two common Mediterranean annuals (Geropogon hybridus and Crupina crupinastrum) with similar habitat preferences. They were studied along a steep precipitation gradient in Israel similar to the maximum predicted precipitation changes in the eastern Mediterranean basin (i.e. −30% until 2100). We expected a shift from competitive ability to stress tolerance with decreasing precipitation and tested this expectation by measuring key functional traits (canopy and seed release height, specific leaf area, N- and P-leaf content, seed mass). Further, we evaluated generative bet-hedging strategies by different seed traits. Both species showed different responses along the precipitation gradient. C. crupinastrum exhibited only decreased plant height towards aridity, while G. hybridus showed strong trends of generative adaptation to aridity. Different seed trait indices suggest increased bet-hedging of G. hybridus in arid environments. However, no clear trends along the precipitation gradient were observed in leaf traits (specific leaf area and leaf N-/P-content) in both species. Moreover, variance decomposition revealed that most of the observed trait variation (≫50%) is found within populations. The findings of our study suggest that responses to increased aridity are highly species-specific and local environmental factors may have a stronger effect on intraspecific trait variation than shifts in annual precipitation. We therefore argue that trait-based analyses should focus on precipitation gradients that are comparable to predicted precipitation changes and compare precipitation effects to effects of local environmental factors.