退耕还林对宁南黄土丘陵区景观格局的影响——以中庄村典型小流域为例

"退耕还林"工程是关系到西部乃至中国生态恢复的重要工程。以黄土丘陵区"退耕还林"工程实施最早的典型小流域——中庄村小流域为研究区,应用景观生态学的原理与方法,选择斑块多样性、景观异质性和土地利用相对合理性等指数,对其退耕还林前(1993-2000年)后(2000-2005年)的变化情况进行分析,目的在于揭示"退耕还林"政策的实施对景观格局向良性演化的巨大推动作用。结果显示,退耕前(1993-2000年)研究区景观格局演变幅度很小,相应的,斑块多样性、景观异质性和土地利用相对合理性指数等景观指数的变化均较小。退耕后(2000-2005年),研究区发生了剧烈的景观格局演化,主要的景观变化过程是耕地转化为林地。此阶段研究区25°以上坡耕地基本退耕完毕,15-25°坡度范围是退耕还林的主要区域,其次为8-15°。相应的,2000-2005年小流域景观斑块总数减小,平均斑块面积增加,景观形状趋于复杂,斑块边界复杂性有所增加,景观斑块呈现团聚化的趋势。其中,耕地斑块总面积显著减小,斑块数下降,平均斑块面积略有增大;林地斑块总面积显著增加,斑块数保持稳定,景观优势度显著增加。土地利用相对合理性指数因此从1993年和2000年的0.668、0.664,显著上升至2005年的0.712。采用3期土地利用现状图对"退耕还林"实施前后两个阶段的景观格局演变过程进行分析,结果表明"退耕还林"是研究区景观格局良性演化的主要驱动力。     

西双版纳地区土地利用的空间分析

利用西双版纳地区2003年TM数据,对土地利用结构及土地利用与海拔、坡度、水系等自然地理要素相互关系的空间进行分析.结果表明,耕地、林地和草地是该地区土地利用的主体,其中林地面积13 420 km²,占研究区总面积的74%;草地面积3 251 km²,耕地面积2 332 km²,分别占13%和18%.林地、耕地和草地面积随海拔高度具有单峰变化的曲线特征,在海拔1 000～1 200 m处林地分布最多,耕地和草地面积达到峰值时的海拔约为900 m.受人为活动影响强的用地类型坡度指数较低,城乡建筑用地和耕地的坡度指数为5°和14°,人为活动影响较弱的林地草地坡度指数较高,分别为22°和20°.河谷内随缓冲距离增加,土地利用呈现规律性变化,耕地、城镇居民点、未利用地3种土地利用方式主要集中在河谷底部近水域处,远离河谷林地草地组分增加明显.西双版纳地区自然生态系统相对原生,具有林地为基质,河流为廊道,坝区、沟谷农业景观镶嵌分布的特点.     

岷江上游干旱河谷耕地和居民用地的空间特征

以岷江上游干旱河谷耕地和居民用地为对象,用景观格局分析软件FRAGSTATS3.3计算了4个景观格局指数,利用ARCMAP9.0分析了耕地和居民用地与其它景观类型间的空间邻接特征,基于数字高成模型(DEM)研究了耕地和居民用地与海拔及坡度的关系。结果表明:灌木林地是干旱河谷的景观基质;耕地和居民用地斑块的平均面积和密度较小,形状简单;耕地大多在1700~3000m的区域,陡坡耕种比较严重,与灌木林地具有较高的邻接长度和数目;居民用地间隔较远,在低海拔地区分布相对较密,高海拔地区分布比较分散;对居民用地在空间结构影响最大的是耕地的分布。     

我国南方典型红壤区景观格局对崩岗侵蚀的影响

崩岗是地质构造、地貌条件、气象水文、植被、人类活动等综合作用下形成的一种复合侵蚀地貌,崩岗的形成与发展已严重制约了当地农业生产和社会经济发展。通过调整土地利用结构方式、优化景观格局是防治红壤区崩岗侵蚀的重要手段。如何从斑块类型水平揭示景观格局与崩岗侵蚀的关系,对于控制崩岗侵蚀、提高生态环境效益具有重要意义。以福建省安溪县为例,运用ArcGIS水文分析工具和DEM数据将该区域划分为53个子流域,以崩岗面积与密度为响应变量,景观格局指数为解释变量,采用冗余分析(RDA)法和通径分析法,从斑块类型水平探讨景观格局指数与崩岗面积与密度的影响。结果表明:影响崩岗侵蚀的景观格局指数主要由土地利用类型决定,其中林地的景观格局指数对崩岗特征的解释度最高(63.82%),其次为耕地(49.19%)和建设用地(42.01%);耕地景观类型面积、林地聚集度、建设用地景观形状指数和林地斑块连接度4个指标显著影响崩岗特征,对崩岗特征变化的贡献率分别为51.5%、26.9%、9.2%和6.1%,且4个指标对崩岗特征的累积解释度达到66.2%;通径分析发现耕地景观类型面积、林地斑块连接度、林地边缘密度、林地斑块类型面积百分比和建设用地边缘密度的综合作用对崩岗面积变化和密度变化的解释程度分别为71%和85%,其中耕地景观类型面积和林地斑块类型面积百分比对崩岗面积和崩岗密度的影响最大,通径系数分别是0.499、-0.440和0.608、-0.342。总体而言,科学合理的规划耕地、林地和建设用地的空间布局,提升景观类型整体生态效应,对抑制崩岗侵蚀具有重要意义。研究结果对于科学规划土地利用、控制红壤区崩岗侵蚀具有重要指导意义。     

黄土丘陵沟壑区景观格局演变特征——以陕西省延安市为例

以陕西省延安市1985年、2000年和2008年三期1∶25万景观单元类型图,1∶5万地形图等生成的数字高程模型(DEM)为数据源,基于ArcGIS 9.3软件,采用多距离空间聚类、景观单元类型转移矩阵、空间数据叠加分析等方法分析了延安市景观格局的演变特征。结果表明:延安市的景观是由林地、灌木、草地和农田等基本景观单元构成的复合景观;研究期间农地面积急剧减少,流失的农地主要转变为林地、草地、灌木和聚落,除农地和裸地外,其他景观单元类型面积均有不同程度的增加;1985—2008年,林地、灌木和草地聚集的最大尺度减小,而农田聚集的最大尺度变大,农田和草地的空间聚集强度明显小于林地和灌木;延安市主要景观单元类型演变主要发生在海拔1100—1500 m之间的区域和坡度范围7—21°之间的区域,但农田向聚落的演变主要发生在海拔较低(900—1300 m)、坡度较缓(7°)的平川缓丘地带。1999年之前,经济的迅速发展是延安市景观格局演变的主要驱动因素;而1999年之后,国家推行的退耕还林(还草)等一系列生态重建措施成为延安市景观格局变化的主要驱动因素。     

太行山低山丘陵区景观变化特征分析——以河南省济源市为例

以位于太行山南端的河南省济源市为例 ,在对其内部环境进行区划的基础上 ,利用遥感影像数据对其 1995～ 2 0 0 0年的景观变化特点进行了分析。结果表明 ,济源市的景观基质没有变化 ,均是以耕地占绝对优势 ;在景观类型的绝对面积变化中 ,以耕地面积的减少最大 ,而草地和林地的面积则呈现出明显的增加。从景观斑块类型的区域相对变化速率来看 ,变化最明显的区域主要集中在黄土丘陵区 ,该区域的变化速率高于全市的平均变化速率。从景观斑块类型的变化速率看 ,黄土丘陵区的水域、居民点和未利用土地的平均变化速率也大于全市同一斑块类型的变化速率。从该市主要景观斑块类型的转化方向来看 ,耕地、林地、草地这三者之间相互转化比较频繁 ,在目前的国家环境政策下 ,这容易造成人财物的浪费 ,同时也导致了环境稳定性的下降 ,这是极不合理、也是极不经济的。促使上述变化的驱动力主要表现在环境安全驱动上 ,其中起到至关重要作用的为以政府行为所实施的太行山绿化工程、黄河中游防护林工程、天然林保护工程以及退耕还林工程等。     

土地利用变化对三峡库区重庆段植被净初级生产力的影响

研究土地利用变化对区域植被净初级生产力(Net Primary Productivity,NPP)的影响对于明确区域植被固碳能力与土地利用变化的关系,以及维持生态系统结构稳定具有重要意义。以三峡库区重庆段为例,基于2000—2015年MOD17A3数据和土地利用数据,分析研究区NPP时空分布特征并从景观生态学的角度探讨土地利用变化对区域植被NPP的影响。研究表明:(1)NPP年均值16年间波动不大,空间分布上从东到西逐渐减少;(2)研究期内林地面积增加,耕地和草地面积减小,而NPP总量从25.6 TgC增加到了28.5 TgC,其中耕地NPP约占总量的44%,林地次之(40%),草地最少(14%),2000—2005年、2005—2010年、2010—2015年土地利用变化对NPP变化的贡献率分别为26.49%、59.76%、17.27%;(3)区域生态景观指数中的香农多样性指数SHDI、斑块密度PD与NPP呈正相关,而聚合度AI与NPP呈负相关,景观格局类型和景观格局变化均影响区域植被NPP的增长。要提高区域植被NPP,需优化土地利用格局,增加景观异质性和斑块密度,重视培育幼龄林,并控制成熟林的数量。     

成都市近20年林地景观变化特征

基于多时段遥感数据资料,利用景观格局方法和区域土地利用指数模型,并结合生态功能区划,从时间和空间上对成都市1985-2006年的林地景观变化特征进行了分析.结果表明:研究时段内,成都市林地损失面积超过17000 hm²,林地斑块格局特征变化复杂,中、小斑块的数量和面积变化显著,体现出林地剧烈的转化和破碎化过程.从林地区域分布特征来看,林地斑块在山地亚区面积最大,约占研究区总面积的70%;平原亚区斑块数量最多,占总数的70%左右;全市林地面积变化速度最快的时期为1985-1995年,其中以山地亚区的林地面积减少速度最快;不同时段各生态功能亚区林地的相对变化率也不同.从林地的转化方向看,林地的转出、转入类型均以耕地和草地为主,林地在2000-2006年稳定性最高.促使林地景观格局时序变化的驱动力主要是生存型经济福利驱动、环境安全驱动和快速城市化过程,而自然生态条件、社会经济地域分工与布局则是林地景观空间变化的重要约束因子.     

生态保护政策对岷江上游地区土地利用/覆被的影响

采用CLUE-S模型模拟方法,对基于历史发展趋势以及“天然林保护工程”和“退耕还林还草工程”政策下2000-2020年间岷江上游地区土地利用/覆被变化进行了预案分析.结果表明：2000-2020年间,按历史发展趋势,作为研究区景观基质的林地面积将不断减少,而灌木林地和草地面积将不断增加,景观破碎化程度将不断加剧;“天然林保护工程”和“退耕还林还草工程”能够有效增加研究区林地面积,并使草地面积不断下降,同时能够扭转景观破碎化趋势,使景观格局向着更加优化的方向发展.     

气候、植被和地形对大兴安岭林火烈度空间格局的影响

在北方森林中火干扰是森林景观变化的主导因素。林火烈度作为衡量林火动态的重要指标,较为直观地反映了火干扰对森林生态系统的破坏程度,其空间格局深刻地影响着森林景观中的多种生态过程(如树种组成、种子扩散以及植被的恢复)。解释林火烈度空间格局有助于揭示林火干扰后森林景观格局的形成机制,对预测未来林火烈度空间格局以及制定科学合理林火管理策略均有重要意义。基于LandsatTM/ETM遥感影像,将2000—2016年大兴安岭呼中林区的36场火的林火烈度划分为未过火、轻度、中度、重度4个等级。采用FRAGSTAT景观格局分析软件从类型水平上计算了斑块所占景观面积比、面积加权平均斑块面积、面积加权平均斑块分维数、面积加权边缘面积比、斑块密度5个景观指数,以对林火烈度空间格局进行了定量化描述。并且采用随机森林模型,分析了气候、地形、植被对林火烈度空间格局的影响及其边际效应。通过研究得出以下结果:(1)相对于未过火、轻度、以及中度火烧斑块,重度火烧斑块的面积更大、形状更简单;(2)海拔对重度火烧斑块的空间格局起着至关重要的作用,其次是坡向、坡度、植被覆盖度、相对湿度、温度等;(3)随着海拔的升高,面积加权平均斑块面积和面积加权平均斑块分维数的边际效应曲线呈上升趋势,而面积加权边缘面积比和斑块密度呈下降趋势;除了面积加权平均斑块面积外,都受到火前植被覆盖度的影响,且植被覆盖度为0.2—0.3范围内,重度火烧斑块在景观中所占比例最大。总的来看,2000—2016年大兴安岭呼中森林景观中重度火烧斑块与未过火、轻度以及中度火烧斑块存在显著差异性。相对于气候,地形和植被对于塑造重度火烧斑块空间格局具有重要作用。因此,应针对重度火烧区域进行可燃物处理,从景观层面上合理配置森林斑块,从而降低高烈度森林大火发生的风险。     

Management of ecosystem services in mountain forests: Review of indicators and value functions for model based multi-criteria decision analysis

The main ecosystem services (ES) central European mountain forests provide are: protection against gravitational hazards, timber production, recreation, biodiversity conservation and carbon storage, which are all in high demand. These demands make managing mountain forests a challenging task, involving manifold synergies and conflicts between the different ES. There is therefore an urgent need for appropriate concepts and tools for support decisions in forest management and planning (FMP) to take into consideration all ES and to manage the wide variety of information types, parameters and uncertainties involved in assessing the sustainability of ES. Multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) provides a suitable set of methods for sustainability evaluations. In this study sustainability means the persistent fulfilment of the required ES. To address all the phases of the FMP process, MCDA and forest models should be applied together, with indicators providing the main interfaces to combine them. This paper aims to: i) review assessment approaches in order to select appropriate and widely accepted indicators for measuring and assessing the effects of different silvicultural management alternatives on forest ES, and ii) present additional standardisation approaches (value functions) for each indicator. Standardisations are necessary to make the different ES comparable and to study synergies and trade-offs between different management objectives in MCDA. The main ES in central European mountain regions are considered, with a clear focus on those indicators that are directly derivable from forest model outputs and that can refer to sustainable forest management practices. The scales considered are that of the single forest stand and of the larger forest management unit. A holistic indicator-based analysis framework for FMP in mountain forests can be built using the indicators and value functions described. The influence of different management alternatives on ES can then be evaluated, taking into consideration the instruments and information on forest management (forest models, inventory) available. All indicators are selected according to existing and approved approaches that only require data that is normally available in operational forest management. The framework can thus be an important element in developing a decision support system for FMP in mountain forests.     

Sapling growth as a function of light and landscape-level variation in soil water and foliar nitrogen in northern Michigan

Interspecific differences in sapling growth responses to soil resources could influence species distributions across soil resource gradients. I calibrated models of radial growth as a function of light intensity and landscape-level variation in soil water and foliar N for saplings of four canopy tree species, which differ in adult distributions across soil resource gradients. Model formulations, characterizing different resource effects and modes of influencing growth, were compared based on relative empirical support using Akaike’s Information Criterion. Contrary to expectation, the radial growth of species associated with lower fertility (Acer rubrum and Quercus rubra) was more sensitive to variation in soil resources than the high fertility species Acer saccharum. Moreover, there was no species tradeoff between growth under high foliar N versus growth under low foliar N, which would be expected if growth responses to foliar N mediated distributions. In general, there was functional consistency among species in growth responses to light, foliar N, and soil water availability, respectively. Foliar N influenced primarily high-light growth in F. grandifolia, A. rubrum, and Q. rubra (but was not significant for A. saccharum). In A. saccharum and A. rubrum, for which soil water availability was a significant predictor, soil water and light availability simultaneously limited growth (i.e., either higher light or water increased growth). Simple resource-based models explained 0.74–0.90 of growth variance, indicating a high degree of determinism. Results suggest that nitrogen effects on forest dynamics would be strongest in high-light early successional communities but that water availability influences growth in both early successional and understory environments.     

Rehabilitation of degraded forests in Thailand: policy and practice

Thailand has suffered from severe deforestation during the last century. Forest cover has declined drastically both in terms of area and quality, mostly due to the expansion of human activities. Much of the deforested area has been used for agricultural purposes, but much has also been left in a degraded condition. In late 1980s, the forest declined to a point where the nation decided that the remaining forest should be kept for conservation rather than further exploitation. Consequently, forest policy has shifted its focus from exploitation to sustainable management and protection. Thailand has set a goal of increasing its forest area to 40% of the total land area, while at present, forests occupy around 28.9% of the land. With the intention to retain most of the remaining forest as protected areas and, at the same time, achieve the goal set, several reforestation and rehabilitation initiatives have been implemented, especially on those lands in a degraded condition. This paper focuses on the significant issues affecting both the policy and practice of forest rehabilitation. Given that the large number of people whose livelihood depends on the forests for subsistence and other purposes normally has been excluded from the decision-making process in forest management, most important among these issues are the integration of the socio-economic and environmental needs into rehabilitation initiatives together with the active participation of local communities in the rehabilitation program. Case studies of reforestation and rehabilitation initiatives are also discussed.     

The Finnish forest site type approach: ordination and classification studies of mesic forest sites in southern Finland

A.K. Cajander's forest site type classification system is based on definition of plant communities typical to certain climatical and edaphical site conditions, but the structure and composition of the tree stands in Finland are considered sensitive to random variation and are therefore not used as primary classification criteria. The system has often received criticism, usually that the effects of the tree stand and successional stage of the stand have been underestimated. Most of the present-day forest stands in Finland represent young successional stages and are subjected to intensive management. This should result in an additional difficulty in the application of the forest site types in the field.The present study is based on three independent data sets representing forests on mineral soil in southern part of Finland. TWINSPAN classification, DCA ordination and canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) techniques were applied in successive stages of the data analysis. It was found that the definition of the intermediately fertile, mesic site types was clearly confused by the effects of the tree species and age of the stand. The analyses also revealed that the succession pathways on mesic forest sites are largely determined by the tree species composition. In stands dominated by Pinus sylvestris, the succession follows the competitive hierarchy model, whereas in stands dominated by Picea abies, severe shading of the tree canopy governs the development of understorey vegetation.Abbreviations CCA Canonical correspondence Analysis - DCA Detrended correspondence Analysis - TWINSPAN Two-way indicator species analysis     

Travelling to a former sea floor: colonization of forests by understorey plant species on land recently reclaimed from the sea

Questions: What are important forest characteristics determining colonization of forest patches by forest understorey species? Location: Planted forests on land recently reclaimed from the sea, the Netherlands. Methods: We related the distribution of forest specialist species in the understorey of 55 forests in Dutch IJsselmeer polders to the following forest characteristics: age, area, connectivity, distance to mainland (as a proxy for distance to seed source) and path density. We used species of the Fraxino‐Ulmetum association for the Netherlands as reference for species that could potentially occur in the study area. Results: Area and age of the surveyed forests explained a large part of the variation in overall species composition and species number of forest plant species. The importance of connectivity and distance to the mainland of forest habitats became apparent only at a more detailed level of dispersal groups and individual species. The importance of forest parameters differed between dispersal groups and also between individual species. After 60 years, 75% of the potential pool of wind‐dispersed species has reached the polders, whereas this was only 50% for species lacking specific adaptations to long‐distance dispersal. However, the average percentage of successful colonizing species present per forest was substantially lower, ranging from 15 to 37%. Conclusions: The data strongly suggest that the colonization process in polder forests is still in its initial phase, during which easily dispersed species dominate the vegetation. Colonization success of common species that lack adaptations to long‐distance dispersal is affected by spatial configuration of the forests, and most rare species that could potentially occur in these forests are still absent. Implications for conservation of rare species in fragmented landscapes are discussed.     

顺德"青山工程"森林植被改造的群落学特征

以比较样地法对佛山市顺德区“青山工程”森林植被改造前后的群落学特征进行了研究,结果表明：该市以湿地松、隆缘桉、台湾相思、尾叶桉等人工林分为多,种类较单一,优势种明显,各群落种群重要值多集中于少数几个物种,导致生物多样性指数偏低,同时林分的胸径和树高结构大都不合理,影响了森林的生态效益和群落更新。通过林分改造,优化了群落结构,提高了多样性指数。在改造中不宜将上层乔木全伐,以保留郁闭度0．3为佳。     

The spatial relationship between post‐crop remaining trees and the establishment of saplings in Pinus sylvestris stands in Spain

Question: What is the spatial relationship between remaining trees and the establishment and development of recruited saplings? Location: The Pinus sylvestris forest Pinar de Valsaín, in the Sistema mountain range (central Spain). Methods: Three 0.5 ha plots have been analysed. The saplings were located in a 2 m x 2 m grid, characterizing their spatial pattern through a nested ANO VA. The spatial pattern of stems was analysed using the L(d) function. To analyse the spatial relationship between stems belonging to different cohorts, the intertype L_rs(d) function was used. Finally a new function K_rx(d) is presented as a method to analyse the relationship between the spatial distribution of stems and the sapling density (a sampled continuous variable). Results: The mother trees show cluster pattern at scales of ca. 12 m ‐ 22 m, leading to a spatial pattern at 14 m–16 m for the saplings during the regeneration period. At the beginning of the shelter phase, saplings less than 1.30 m in height show spatial repulsion from the old crop at distances above 10 m, whereas taller saplings show repulsion at shorter distances, due to the suppression of sapling development near the mother trees. At the end of the regeneration period, saplings < 1.30 m appear under the last remaining mother tree canopies. Conclusions: In the stands analysed, located at the southern limit of Pinus sylvestris distribution, this species behaves as half‐shade tolerant. This study shows that the K_rx(d) function might be widely applied to analyse the relationship between patterns that occur at different scales or between a point pattern and a continuous variable, being a useful tool for analysing some forest processes.     

基于森林资源清查资料的生物量估算模式及其发展趋势

基于森林资源清查资料的森林生物量估算是在景观、区域甚至全球尺度上评估森林碳收支的重要手段。且在陆地生态系统碳循环和全球变化研究中起着十分重要的作用．对3种常见的基于森林资源清查资料估算生物量的方法及其不足进行较为系统概述的基础上,指出了其未来的研究方向：1)综合考虑森林生物学因素与非生物学因素对森林生物量的影响,特别是蓄积量和林龄,以及气候因子在估算生物量中的作用;2)明确森林总生物量与活立木生物量的关系;3)建立基于森林资源清查资料的遥感驱动生物量估算模型,为森林生物量的准确估算提供方法和依据．     

中国森林健康生态风险评价

我国森林每年都在遭受诸如过度砍伐、火灾、病虫鼠害、酸雨、气象灾害等各种形式的干扰．这些干扰对我国森林生态系统的健康状况造成很大的威胁．因此,如何有效地管理我国的森林资源,特别是对森林的生态风险管理,提高森林生态系统抵御风险的能力,是森林生态系统健康研究和森林可持续管理的首要任务之一．森林健康生态风险评价是描述和评价人为活动、自然灾害和环境污染等胁迫因子对森林生态系统结构和功能、森林生态系统的健康状况产生不利影响的可能性和危害程度的评估,是森林资源管理的一个重要环节．以我国森林生态系统为例,探讨森林健康生态风险评价的研究方法,并以森林火灾、病虫害和酸雨为生态风险源,运用生态风险评价方法,分析了这些风险源对森林健康的主要危害,对我国森林健康的风险进行了综合评价,并提出不同森林风险区的管理策略．     

The Value of Opinion in Science and the Forest Service Research Organization

ABSTRACT There is confusion about conflicts of interest between sources of funding and the extent to which Forest Service researchers are free to publish their findings. Forest Service Research is an independent entity with no administrative accountability to policy makers up to the office of the Chief of the Forest Service. Congressional mandate ensures that research will be free from the influence of politics that land management necessarily entails. Because politics involves opinions, it is important to note that opinions per se are not scientific and must be appropriately compared with empirical data before they can be considered so. It is the quantitative test of an opinion that renders it scientific, not the opinion itself.