Distribution patterns and biogeographic analysis of Austral Polychaeta (Annelida)

Aim We investigate the biogeography of Austral Polychaeta (Annelida) using members of the families Eunicidae, Lumbrineridae, Oenonidae, Onuphidae, Serpulidae and Spionidae and Parsimony Analysis of Endemicity (PAE). We determine whether observed polychaete distribution patterns correspond to traditional shallow-water marine areas of endemism, estimate patterns of endemism and relationships between areas of endemism, and infer the biological processes that have caused these patterns. Location The study is concerned with extant polychaete taxa occupying shallow-water areas derived from the breakup of the Gondwana landmass (i.e. Austral areas). Methods Similarity was assessed using a significance test with Jaccard's indices. Areas not significantly different at 0.99 were combined prior to the PAE. Widespread species and genera (155 taxa) were scored for presence/absence for each area of endemism. PAE was used to derive hypotheses of area relationships. Hierarchical patterns in the PAE trees were identified by testing for congruence with patterns derived from cladistic biogeographic studies of other Gondwanan taxa and with geological evidence. Results The polychaete faunas of four area-pairs were not significantly different and the areas amalgamated: South-west Africa and South Africa, New Zealand South Island and Chatham Islands, Macquarie Island and Antipodean Islands, and West Antarctica and South Georgia. Areas with the highest levels of species endemism were southern Australia (67.0%), South-east South America (53.2%) and South Africa (40.4%). About 60% of species and 7.5% of genera occupied a single area of endemism. The remainder were informative in the PAE. Under a no long-distance dispersal assumption a single minimal-length PAE tree resulted (l=367; ci=0.42); under dispersal allowed, three minimal-length trees resulted (l=278; ci=0.56). In relation to the sister grouping of the New Zealand areas and Australia we find congruence between our minimal-length trees and those derived from a biogeographic study of land plants, and with area relationships predicted by the Expanding Earth Model. Main conclusions The polychaete distribution patterns in this study differ slightly from the classical areas of endemism, most notably in being broader, thereby bringing into question the value of using single provincial system for marine biogeographic studies. The Greater New Zealand region is found to be ‘monophyletic’ with respect to polychaetes, that is comprising a genuine biogeographical entity, and most closely related to the polychaete fauna of southern Australia. This finding is consistent with studies of land plants and with the Expanding Earth model, but disagrees with conventional geology and biogeographic hypothesis involving a ‘polyphyletic’ New Zealand. Both vicariance and concerted range expansion (=biotic dispersion) appear to have played important roles in shaping present-day distribution patterns of Austral polychaetes. Shallow-water ridge systems between the Australian and Greater New Zealand continental landmasses during the Tertiary are thought to have facilitated biotic dispersion.     

Fifteen into Three Does Go: Morphology,Genetics and Genitalia Confirm Taxonomic Inflation of New Zealand Beetles (Chrysomelidae: Eucolaspis)

Eucolaspis Sharp 1886 is a New Zealand native leaf beetle genus (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Eumolpinae) with poorly described species and a complex taxonomy. Many economically important fruit crops are severely damaged by these beetles. Uncertain species taxonomy of Eucolaspis is leaving any biological research, as well as pest management, tenuous. We used morphometrics, mitochondrial DNA and male genitalia to study phylogenetic and geographic diversity of Eucolaspis in New Zealand. Freshly collected beetles from several locations across their distribution range, as well as identified voucher specimens from major museum collections were examined to test the current classification. We also considered phylogenetic relationships among New Zealand and global Eumolpinae (Coleoptera: Chyrosomelidae). We demonstrate that most of the morphological information used previously to define New Zealand Eucolaspis species is insufficient. At the same time, we show that a combination of morphological and genetic evidence supports the existence of just 3 mainland Eucolaspis lineages (putative species), and not 5 or 15, as previously reported. In addition, there may be another closely related lineage (putative species) on an offshore location (Three Kings Islands, NZ). The cladistic structure among the lineages, conferred through mitochondrial DNA data, was well supported by differences in male genitalia. We found that only a single species (lineage) infests fruit orchards in Hawke’s Bay region of New Zealand. Species-host plant associations vary among different regions.     

Late Cenozoic diversification of the austral genus Lagenophora (Astereae,Asteraceae)

Lagenophora (Astereae, Asteraceae) has 14 species in New Zealand, Australia, Asia, southern South America, Gough Island and Tristan da Cunha. Phylogenetic relationships in Lagenophora were inferred using nuclear and plastid DNA regions. Reconstruction of spatio‐temporal evolution was estimated using parsimony, Bayesian inference and likelihood methods, a Bayesian relaxed molecular clock and ancestral area and habitat reconstructions. Our results support a narrow taxonomic concept of Lagenophora including only a core group of species with one clade diversifying in New Zealand and another in South America. The split between the New Zealand and South American Lagenophora dates from 11.2 Mya [6.1–17.4 95% highest posterior density (HPD)]. The inferred ancestral habitats were openings in beech forest and subalpine tussockland. The biogeographical analyses infer a complex ancestral area for Lagenophora involving New Zealand and southern South America. Thus, the estimated divergence times and biogeographical reconstructions provide circumstantial evidence that Antarctica may have served as a corridor for migration until the expansion of the continental ice during the late Cenozoic. The extant distribution of Lagenophora reflects a complex history that could also have involved direct long‐distance dispersal across southern oceans. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, 177 , 78–95.     

New Zealand's pteridophyte flora—Plants of ancient lineage but recent arrival?

A hypothesis is presented that most pteridophytes arrived in New Zealand relatively recently, by long-distance dispersal. The flora comprises 194 native species, of which 89 (46%) are endemic and 105 (54%) are widespread. Of the latter, 90% are shared with temperate Australasia, 53% with tropical regions, 14% with temperate southern Africa and 13% with the circum-Antarctic islands and South America. New Zealand has undergone such dramatic changes in location, land area, and topography since initial separation from Gondwana 85 Ma that it seems improbable that the 95 species shared with temperate Australasia could have remained conspecific throughout that time. Modern fossil and molecular evidence strongly suggest that many families of ferns had not even evolved prior to separation, and palynological evidence from New Zealand indicates that 78% of pteridophyte genera first appeared there only after separation from Gondwana. Present-day distributions in New Zealand suggest that ferns have greater dispersal potential than flowering plants, and that pteridophyte distributions are more heavily influenced by temperature, rainfall, and geothermal activity than by geological history. Most endemic pteridophyte species have a predominantly southern distribution pattern and are characteristic of cool, lowland to montane forest. Pteridophytes in the northern part of New Zealand show a lower level of endemism than elsewhere and tend to be widespread species that have arrived from temperate Australasian and tropical regions. There is also evidence that at least some pteridophytes have migrated from New Zealand to Australia. It is suggested that the hypothesis of long-distance dispersal of pteridophytes across the Tasman Sea could be tested by molecular techniques.     

Biogeographical relationships among tropical forests in north-eastern Brazil

Aim To use parsimony analysis of endemicity and cladistic analysis of distributions and endemism to evaluate two hypotheses addressing biogeographical relationships among Amazonia, the Caatinga forest enclaves, Pernambuco Centre and the southern Atlantic Forest. Location North‐eastern Brazil, South America. Methods To find the most parsimonious areagram we analysed a matrix composed of the presence (1) or absence (0) of 745 taxa (i.e. 293 genera and 452 species of woody plants) within 16 localities belonging to the four large regions addressed in this study. Results One most parsimonious areagram was found and it shows a basal separation between the southern Atlantic Forest and all other regions. This break is followed by a separation between all Caatinga forest enclaves (except Baturité) from a cluster composed of Baturité, the Pernambuco Centre and Amazonia. In this cluster, the most basal separation isolates Baturité from the cluster formed by localities from Amazonia and the Pernambuco Centre. The biogeographical relationships among sites could not be explained by either a random distribution of species among sites or by the geographical distance between sites. Main conclusions We found strong cladistic signal within the raw distribution and phylogenetic data used in our analysis, indicating structured species assemblages in the surveyed localities. They have resulted from the fragmentation of an ancestral biota that was once widely distributed in the region. Our results also support the hypothesis that Atlantic Forest is not a biogeographically natural area, because the Pernambuco Centre is more closely related to Amazonia than to the southern Atlantic Forest. Finally, our data do not support the notion that Caatinga forest enclaves comprise a single biogeographical region, because one Caatinga forest enclave (Baturité) is much more closely related to the cluster formed by Amazonia and the Pernambuco Centre than to other sites. These relationships suggest the occurrence of forest connections between Amazonia and the Atlantic Forests across Caatinga during several periods of the Tertiary and Quaternary. However, palaeoecological data currently available for the Caatinga region are still scarce and do not have either the spatial or temporal resolution required to reconstruct the history of connections among the forests in north‐eastern Brazil.     

Distribution,origin and speciation,wing development,and host‐plant relationships of New Zealand Targaremini (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae)

Three faunal areas—northern (Three Kings Islands, Northland, Auckland, Coromandel Peninsula, and offshore islands), central (most of Nelson, north‐east Buller, Marlborough, Marlborough Sounds, Kaikoura, northern North Canterbury), and southern (Fiordland, southern Otago Lakes, southern Central Otago, southern Dunedin, Southland, Stewart Island) —are each characterised by the local endemicity of about 20% of the total targaremine species of New Zealand. They are separated by areas of no endemicity. Arbitrary subareas are delineated in the northern and southern areas. Species not endemic to a single faunal area have wider ranges covering more than one area. The targaremine faunal areas and subareas are compared with those recognised for other units of the New Zealand biota. Instances of allopatric and parapatric species are listed. All 30 targaremine species in New Zealand are endemic; the effects of Pleistocene cold climate on their distribution and speciation are discussed. Wing development is discussed in relation to its role in initial distribution and dispersal over geographical barriers, and in subsequent adaptations to ecological niches and/or post‐Pleistocene extensions of range. Analysis of host‐plant data reveals that the Targaremini have no marked host specificity; ecologically significant data are presented for several species.     

Relaxed Molecular Clock Provides Evidence for Long-Distance Dispersal of Nothofagus (Southern Beech)

Nothofagus (southern beech), with an 80-million-year-old fossil record, has become iconic as a plant genus whose ancient Gondwanan relationships reach back into the Cretaceous era. Closely associated with Wegener's theory of “Kontinentaldrift”, Nothofagus has been regarded as the “key genus in plant biogeography”. This paradigm has the New Zealand species as passengers on a Moa's Ark that rafted away from other landmasses following the breakup of Gondwana. An alternative explanation for the current transoceanic distribution of species seems almost inconceivable given that Nothofagus seeds are generally thought to be poorly suited for dispersal across large distances or oceans. Here we test the Moa's Ark hypothesis using relaxed molecular clock methods in the analysis of a 7.2-kb fragment of the chloroplast genome. Our analyses provide the first unequivocal molecular clock evidence that, whilst some Nothofagus transoceanic distributions are consistent with vicariance, trans-Tasman Sea distributions can only be explained by long-distance dispersal. Thus, our analyses support the interpretation of an absence of Lophozonia and Fuscospora pollen types in the New Zealand Cretaceous fossil record as evidence for Tertiary dispersals of Nothofagus to New Zealand. Our findings contradict those from recent cladistic analyses of biogeographic data that have concluded transoceanic Nothofagus distributions can only be explained by vicariance events and subsequent extinction. They indicate that the biogeographic history of Nothofagus is more complex than envisaged under opposing polarised views expressed in the ongoing controversy over the relevance of dispersal and vicariance for explaining plant biodiversity. They provide motivation and justification for developing more complex hypotheses that seek to explain the origins of Southern Hemisphere biota.     

Relaxed molecular clock provides evidence for long-distance dispersal of Nothofagus (southern beech)

Nothofagus (southern beech), with an 80-million-year-old fossil record, has become iconic as a plant genus whose ancient Gondwanan relationships reach back into the Cretaceous era. Closely associated with Wegener's theory of “Kontinentaldrift”, Nothofagus has been regarded as the “key genus in plant biogeography”. This paradigm has the New Zealand species as passengers on a Moa's Ark that rafted away from other landmasses following the breakup of Gondwana. An alternative explanation for the current transoceanic distribution of species seems almost inconceivable given that Nothofagus seeds are generally thought to be poorly suited for dispersal across large distances or oceans. Here we test the Moa's Ark hypothesis using relaxed molecular clock methods in the analysis of a 7.2-kb fragment of the chloroplast genome. Our analyses provide the first unequivocal molecular clock evidence that, whilst some Nothofagus transoceanic distributions are consistent with vicariance, trans-Tasman Sea distributions can only be explained by long-distance dispersal. Thus, our analyses support the interpretation of an absence of Lophozonia and Fuscospora pollen types in the New Zealand Cretaceous fossil record as evidence for Tertiary dispersals of Nothofagus to New Zealand. Our findings contradict those from recent cladistic analyses of biogeographic data that have concluded transoceanic Nothofagus distributions can only be explained by vicariance events and subsequent extinction. They indicate that the biogeographic history of Nothofagus is more complex than envisaged under opposing polarised views expressed in the ongoing controversy over the relevance of dispersal and vicariance for explaining plant biodiversity. They provide motivation and justification for developing more complex hypotheses that seek to explain the origins of Southern Hemisphere biota.     

Historical biogeography of Australian Rhamnaceae, tribe Pomaderreae

Aim To discover the pattern of relationships of areas of endemism for Australian genera in the plant family Rhamnaceae tribe Pomaderreae for comparison with other taxa and interpretation of biogeographical history. Location Australian mainland, Tasmania and New Zealand. Methods A molecular phylogeny and geographic distribution of species within four clades of Pomaderreae are used as a basis for recognition of areas of endemism and analysis of area relationships using paralogy‐free subtrees. The taxon phylogeny is the strict consensus tree from a parsimony analysis of 54 taxa, in four clades, and sequence data for the internal transcribed spacer regions of ribosomal DNA (ITS1‐5.8S‐ITS2) and the plastid DNA region trnL‐F. Results The biogeographical analysis identified five subtrees, which, after parsimony analysis, resulted in a minimal tree with 100% consistency and seven resolved nodes. Three sets of area relationships were identified: the areas of Arnhem and Kimberley in tropical north Australia are related based on the phylogeny of taxa within Cryptandra; the moister South‐west of Western Australia, its sister area the coastal Geraldton Sandplains, the semi‐arid Interzone region and arid Western Desert are related, based on taxa within Cryptandra, Spyridium, Trymalium and Pomaderris; and the eastern regions of Queensland, McPherson‐Macleay, south‐eastern New South Wales (NSW), Victoria, southern Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand are related based on Cryptandra, Pomaderris and Spyridium. Tasmania and NSW are related based entirely on Cryptandra, but the position of New Zealand relative to the other south‐eastern Australian regions is unresolved. Main conclusions The method of paralogy‐free subtrees identified a general pattern of geographic area relationships based on Australian Pomaderreae. The widespread distribution of clades, the high level of endemicity and the age of fossils for the family, suggest that the Pomaderreae are an old group among the Australian flora. Their biogeographical history may date to the early Palaeogene with subsequent changes through to the Pleistocene.     

Phylogeny of Cyttaria inferred from nuclear and mitochondrial sequence and morphological data

Cyttaria species (Leotiomycetes, Cyttariales) are obligate, biotrophic associates of Nothofagus (Hamamelididae, Nothofagaceae), the southern beech. As such Cyttaria species are restricted to the southern hemisphere, inhabiting southern South America (Argentina and Chile) and southeastern Australasia (southeastern Australia including Tasmania, and New Zealand). The relationship of Cyttaria to other Leotiomycetes and the relationships among species of Cyttaria were investigated with newly generated sequences of partial nucSSU, nucLSU and mitSSU rRNA, as well as TEF1 sequence data and morphological data. Results found Cyttaria to be defined as a strongly supported clade. There is evidence for a close relationship between Cyttaria and these members of the Helotiales: Cordierites, certain Encoelia spp., Ionomidotis and to a lesser extent Chlorociboria. Order Cyttariales is supported by molecular data, as well as by the unique endostromatic apothecia, lack of chitin and highly specific habit of Cyttaria species. Twelve Cyttaria species are hypothesized, including all 11 currently accepted species plus an undescribed species that accommodates specimens known in New Zealand by the misapplied name C. gunnii, as revealed by molecular data. Thus the name C. gunnii sensu stricto is reserved for specimens occurring on N. cunninghamii in Australia, including Tasmania. Morphological data now support the continued recognition of C. septentrionalis as a species separate from C. gunnii. Three major clades are identified within Cyttaria: one in South America hosted by subgenus Nothofagus, another in South America hosted by subgenera Nothofagus and Lophozonia, and a third in South America and Australasia hosted by subgenus Lophozonia, thus producing a non-monophyletic grade of South American species and a monophyletic clade of Australasian species, including monophyletic Australian and New Zealand clades. Cyttaria species do not sort into clades according to their associations with subgenera Lophozonia and Nothofagus.     

Systematics of Nothofagus (Nothofagaceae) based on rDNA spacer sequences (ITS): taxonomic congruence with morphology and plastid sequences

Phylogenetic relationships were examined within the southern beech family Nothofagaceae using 22 species representing the four currently recognized subgenera and related outgroups. Nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences encoding the 5.8s rRNA and two flanking internal transcribed spacers (ITS) provided 95 phylogenetically informative nucleotide sites from a single alignment of ~588 bases per species. Parsimony analysis of this variation produced two equally parsimonious trees supporting four monophyletic groups, which correspond to groups designated by pollen type. These topologies were compared to trees from reanalyses of previously reported rbcL sequences and a modified morphological data set. Results from parsimony analysis of the three data sets were highly congruent, with topological differences restricted to the placement of a few terminal taxa. Combined analysis of molecular and morphological data produced six equally parsimonious trees. The consensus of these trees suggests two basal clades within Nothofagus. Within the larger of the two clades, tropical Nothofagus (subgenus Brassospora) of New Guinea and New Caledonia are strongly supported as sister to cool-temperate species of South America (subgenus Nothofagus). Most of the morphological apomorphies of the cupule, fruit, and pollen of Nothofagus are distributed within this larger clade. An area cladogram based on the consensus of combined data supports three trans-Antarctic relationships, two within pollen groups and one between pollen groups. Fossil data support continuous ancestral distributions for all four pollen groups prior to continental drift; therefore, vicariance adequately explains two of these disjunctions. Extinction of trans-Antarctic sister taxa within formerly widespread pollen groups explains the third disjunction; this results in a biogeographic pattern indicative of phylogenetic relationship not vicariance. For the biogeographically informative vicariant clades, area relationships based on total evidence support the recently advanced hypothesis that New Zealand and Australia share a unique common ancestry. Contrary to previous thought, the distribution of extant Nothofagus is informative on the area relationships of the Southern Hemisphere, once precise phylogenetic relationships are placed in the context of fossil data.     

Phylogeny of New Zealand hepialid moths (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae) inferred from a cladistic analysis of morphological data

The phylogeny of the New Zealand hepialid moths was estimated from a cladistic analysis of sixty‐three morphological characters, from all life cycle stages. One hundred and sixteen maximum parsimony trees were produced. The phylogenetic reconstruction indicated that the currently recognized generic concepts, and the four informal lineages hypothesized in a previous morphological taxonomic revision, were monophyletic. The relationships of species within genus Wiseana were not fully resolved. Analysis of a data set of thirty‐nine adult male characters from the New Zealand taxa and the Australian genera Jeana, Oxycanus and Trictena supported the monophyly of the New Zealand ‘Oxycanus’ s.s lineage.     

“Barcoding” and ISSR data illuminate a problematic infraspecific taxonomy for Chrysanthemoides monilifera (Calenduleae; Asteraceae): Lessons for biocontrol of a noxious weed

Chrysanthemoides monilifera Tourn. ex Medik is a noxious weed in Australia and New Zealand. It is a widespread species in southern Africa, where it shows considerable morphological variation that has resulted in a confusing infraspecific taxonomy. We use DNA sequence data from the nuclear Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region from 78 samples of this species from its indigenous distribution range and 10 samples from Australia and New Zealand to determine the regions of origin of the invasive plants. These data are augmented by a smaller study using ISSR markers. Bayesian Inference analysis was somewhat resolved, with many weakly supported nodes. Clades with support tended to correspond to infraspecific taxonomic entities, and were geographically coherent. In contrast, a neighbour-net analysis was not as well resolved and indicated considerable reticulation. All analyses of ITS data retrieved two major clades corresponding to Western and Eastern distributions, with some overlap. Samples from New Zealand and Australia correspond to the taxon C. monilifera subsp. monilifera, and are resolved as most closely related to samples from the greater Cape Town area. Biological control agent populations for C. monilifera subsp. monilifera should be sourced from this region in order to avoid host plant incompatibility problems.     

The small‐island effect: fact or artefact?

Positive relationships between species richness and sampling area are perhaps the most pervasive patterns in nature. However, the shape of species–area relationships is often highly variable, for reasons that are poorly understood. One such source of variability is the "small-island effect", which refers to a decrease in the capacity of sampling area to predict species richness on small islands. Small-island effects have been attributed to a variety of processes, including spatial subsidies, habitat characteristics and ocean-born disturbances. Here, we show that small-island effects can be generated by logarithmic data transformations, which are commonly applied to both axes of species–area relationships. To overcome this problem, we derive several null models to test for non-random variability in the capacity of island area to predict species richness and apply them to data sets on island plant communities in Canada and New Zealand. Both archipelagos showed evidence for small-island effects using traditional breakpoint regression techniques on log-log axes. However, null model analyses revealed different results. The capacity of sampling area to predict species richness in the Canadian archipelago was actually lowest at intermediate island size classes. In the New Zealand archipelago, island area was similarly capable of predicting species richness across the full range of island sizes, indicating the small-island effect detected by breakpoint regression is an artifact of logarithm data transformation. Overall results show that commonly used regression techniques can generate spurious small-island effects and that alternative analytic procedures are needed to detect non-random patterns in species richness on small islands.     

Phylogeography and ecological niche modelling of the New Zealand stick insect Clitarchus hookeri (White) support survival in multiple coastal refugia

Aim Increasing our understanding of the effects of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and determining the location of refugia requires studies on widely distributed species with dense sampling of populations. We have reconstructed the biogeographic history of Clitarchus hookeri (White), a widespread species of New Zealand stick insect that exhibits geographic parthenogenesis, using phylogeographic analysis and ecological niche modelling. Location New Zealand. Methods We used DNA sequence data from the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships among haplotypes from C. hookeri and two undescribed Clitarchus species. We also used distribution data from our own field surveys and museum records to reconstruct the geographic distribution of C. hookeri during the present and the LGM, using ecological niche modelling. Results The ecological niche models showed that the geographic distribution of C. hookeri has expanded dramatically since the LGM. Our model predicted large areas of suitable LGM habitat in upper North Island, and small patches along the east coast of South Island. The phylogeographic analysis shows that populations in the northern half of North Island contain much higher levels of genetic variation than those from southern North Island and South Island, and is congruent with the ecological niche model. The distribution of bisexual populations is also non-random, with males completely absent from South Island and very rare in southern North Island. Main conclusions During the LGM C. hookeri was most likely restricted to several refugia in upper North Island and one or more smaller refugia along the east coast of South Island. The unisexual populations predominate in post-glacial landscapes and are clearly favoured in the recolonization of such areas. Our study exemplifies the utility of integrating ecological niche modelling and phylogeographic analysis.     

Crossing the Tasman Sea: Inferring the introduction history of Litoria aurea and Litoria raniformis (Anura: Hylidae) from Australia into New Zealand

Abstract The amphibian fauna of New Zealand consists of three native species (Leiopelma spp.), and three Litoria species introduced from Australia in the last 140 years. We conducted a molecular phylogeographical study that aimed to identify the Australian origins of two species, Litoria aurea and Litoria raniformis. We used partial sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (cox1) gene from 59 specimens sampled from across the range of both species to identify the probable source populations for the New Zealand introductions, and to describe the current genetic diversity among New Zealand Litoria populations. Our genetic data suggest that L. aurea was introduced into the North Island of New Zealand from two regions in Australia, once from the northern part of coastal New South Wales and once from the southern part of coastal New South Wales. Our data indicate that L. raniformis introductions originated from the Melbourne region of southern Victoria and once established in the South Island of New Zealand, the species subsequently spread throughout both islands. In addition, we found a distinct haplotype in L. raniformis from Tasmania that strongly suggests, contrary to earlier reports, that this species was not introduced into New Zealand from Tasmania. Finally, we identified two very distinctive mitochondrial lineages of L. raniformis within the mainland Australia distribution, which may be previously unrecognized species.     

The biogeography of the austral, subalpine genus Ourisia (Plantaginaceae) based on molecular phylogenetic evidence: South American origin and dispersal to New Zealand and Tasmania

Molecular phylogenetic analyses of 26 of the 28 species of Ourisia , including eight of ten subspecies and two purported natural hybrids, are presented and used to examine the biogeography of the genus, which is distributed in subalpine to alpine habitats of South America, New Zealand and Tasmania. Gondwanan vicariance, often cited as the cause of this classic austral biogeographical pattern, was rejected by parametric bootstrapping of our combined dataset. Alternatively, various lines of evidence are presented in favour of a South American origin of Ourisia and subsequent dispersal to Australasia. Specifically, the genus likely arose in the Andes of central Chile and spread to southern Chile and Argentina, to the north-central Andes, and finally to Tasmania and New Zealand. The ancestor of the New Zealand species probably first arrived on the South Island, where the New Zealand species of Ourisia are most diverse, and migrated to the North and Stewart Islands. Because the Tasmanian and New Zealand species are sister to one another, the direction of dispersal between these two areas is equivocal. These results agree with other molecular phylogenetic studies that show that past dispersal between southern hemisphere continents has played an important role in the evolutionary history of many high-elevation austral plants. Our data also show that within South America, many of the geographical barriers (with the exception of the Atacama Desert) that have played a role in the evolution of other plant groups have not affected Ourisia species. Within New Zealand, the phylogeny and biogeography of species of Ourisia coincide with the geological history of the country and patterns of other alpine plants. © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 87 , 479–513.     

Geographical variation in species diversity: A comparison of marine polychaetes and nematodes

The aim of this study was to determine if marine species diversity was influenced by geographical location and whether it was higher at lower latitudes. Artificial collectors (made of nylon pan scourers) were employed as a standard substratum for the colonisation of marine invertebrates inhabiting subtidal (12 to 15 m) hard, rocky bottom substrata. These artificial substrate units (ASUs) were deployed at different latitudes including northern and southern temperate (South West England, UK and New Zealand), tropical (Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies) and polar (Signy Island, Antarctica) areas. The polychaetes, representative of the macrofauna and the nematodes, representative of the meiofauna fractions of the total invertebrate fauna collected were analysed.Neither polychaete nor nematode species diversity showed a trend based on latitude and each taxon showed a different pattern of diversity variation in relation to location. Polychaete diversity varied from area to area with highest species diversity occurring in the southern temperate (New Zealand). Nematode species diversity however was similar for the northern and southern temperate (UK and New Zealand) and the tropical area (Trinidad and Tobago). Thus, although the number of locations studied was limited, these data do not conform to a gradient in species diversity with latitude as has been previously supposed. The success of ASUs to compare species diversities in standardised habitat units augurs well for their future use in other ecological areas such as biogeographical or pollution studies.