Seasonal growth activity of local and foreign gracilarioid strains in Israel

Six gracilarioid strains originating from different climatical environments were cultured in two cultivation systems: a short-term indoor one with a cross gradiant table, and a long-term outdoor one. Seasonal growth performances of the different strains were determined. The growth results in the two culture systems showed similar trends. The tropical species.Gracilaria cornea andG. cornea mutant, showed highest growth rates during summer and no growth at all during winter. The temperate species,Gracilaria verrucosa andGracilariopsis lemaneiformis, showed best growth performances during winter with small fluctuations between seasons. The subtropical speciesGracilaria conferta (local) showed seasonal growth fluctuations all over the year. The foreign species definitely did not acclimate under local conditions, but successfully preserved their original response to temperature. Regression equations confirmed that temperature was the dominant environmental variable in most of the gracilarioid strains. The growth rate results obtained showed encouraging prospects for high algal productivity as compared to other cultivation systems. Seasonal cultivation strategy ofGracilaria spp. in Israel is discussed.     

Attenuation of water velocity and incident light as a function of shape parameters inGracilaria

Characteristic shape parameters, light intensities and relative water velocities were estimated in thalli of free-moving seaweeds, using threeGracilaria-like species:G. cornea, G. conferta andGracilariopsis lemaneiformis. Relative velocities over the branches were determined mostly by rotation of the algae in the water as opposed to linear translation. The tree major shape parameters of the thallus, weight, volumetric specific weight and areal specific weight, explain the differences in relative velocity. Relative velocities near the center of the thallus were about 50% to 80% of the external velocity. Light intensities at the vicinity of the center ofG. cornea ranged between 60% to 90% of the external light intensity. Light attenuation in the center was proportional to the weight of the thallus. The significance of light and velocity attenuation as a function of shape parameters is discussed.Author for correspondence     

Cell wall structure of the agarophytes Gracilaria tikvahiae and G. cornea (Rhodophyta) and penetration by the epiphyte Ulva lactuca (Chlorophyta)

Use of light, transmission, and scanning electronmicroscopes revealed that the epidermal cell wall ofthe red algal agarophytes Gracilaria tikvahiaeMcLachlan and G. cornea J. Agardh consists of adecklamelle and outer and inner wall layers. The twospecies differed, with G. cornea having asignificantly thicker outer wall and a more diffusedecklamelle. After induction, the zooids of Ulvalactuca would attach to glass slides and the twospecies of Gracilaria via an adhesion pad. Within a few days, 3–5 celled germlings penetrated thedecklamelle and outer wall layer of both basiphytes. By the time the epiphyte germlings reached the 15celled stage, they had penetrated the inner walllayer. The differences in epidermal cell wallconstruction between the two basiphytes may play arole in the ability of zooids of U. lactuca toattach in nature where epiphytization of G.cornea is infrequent.     

Gracilaria and its epiphytes: 4. The response of two Gracilaria species to Ulva lactuca in a bacteria-limited environment

The responses of Gracilaria lemaneiformis, an easily epiphytized host,and the relatively resistant G. cornea mutant, to the green alga Ulva lactuca were studied using biculture experiments with and withoutantibiotics. Both Gracilaria species grown with and without U.lactuca showed different levels of growth rate, release of hydrogenperoxide and of halogenated hydrocarbons. These quantitative differencesled to a successful response against Ulva lactuca in the case of G.cornea mutant and to a failure in response in the case of G.lemaneiformis. The response of each Gracilaria species to U.lactuca was qualitatively similar to its response to bacteria. This suggeststhe involvement of oligosaccharide elicitors produced in the presence ofepiphytes and bacteria. A clear Gracilaria inhibition was demonstratedwith extracts of the culture medium. It appears that hydrogen peroxide,halogenated hydrocarbons and oligosaccharides may be components of theinhibitory activity of the extracts. The responses of Gracilaria speciesto the presence of U. lactuca suggest the characterization of adefence response.     

Regenerative capacity of Gracilaria fragments: effects of size,reproductive state and position along the axis

Field farming of Gracilaria chilensis in Chile is mainly based on the regenerative capacity of thallus fragments. This study evaluates experimentally the effects on growth of the few organismic determinants that the farmer is capable of effectively handling in the field. No differences were found in the length increments of ramets with and without apices, a surprising result in view of the generally accepted idea that the most important growth meristem in this group of algae is located in the apex of the thallus. Total elongation and increase in weight of fragments with an initial length of up to 20 cm are a function of the initial length of the ramet, suggesting that intercalary growth makes a significant contribution to growth. Vegetative female axes grow faster, (in terms of length and weight) and produce more laterals than fertile female axes, and these faster than fertile tetrasporic branches. No differences in the growth of ramets originating from proximal or distal parts of axes were found. Paper presented at the XVth International Seaweed Symposium.     

Whitening,thallus decay and fragmentation in Gracilaria chilensis associated with an endophytic amoeba

Whitening of Gracilaria chilensis, accompanied by tissue softening and thallus fragmentation, was found to be associated with the presence of an endophytic amoeba. Although the symptoms developed originally in green mutant thalli, subsequent infections in the laboratory also affected normal, wild-type G. chilensis. Ultrastructural evidence indicates that the amoebae perforate the host cell walls of both cortical and medullary cells and digest their protoplasm. Feeding by the amoeba appears to involve both phagocytosis and enzymatic digestion of the host tissue. Destruction of the host tissue resulted in large cavities first, followed by thallus fragmentation. No other organism was found during the early stages of thallus invasion by the amoeba, although bacteria may appear once the amoeba reaches the inner tissues of the host.     

Comparison of three gracilarioids: growth rate, agar content and quality

Three gracilarioid species, Gracilariopsis bailiniae and Gracilaria tenuistipitata from Vietnam and Gracilaria gracilis from Russia, were studied in order to determine whether Gracilaria gracilis might be a superior species for cultivation in brackish-water ponds for agar production compared with the Vietnamese species. The effects of different salinity levels on the growth rate and agar production as well as agar properties of three gracilarioid species were compared in controlled laboratory experiments. Gracilaria tenuistipitata and G. gracilis were tolerant to low salinity (∼10‰), whereas Gp. bailiniae died under these conditions. G. tenuistipitata showed superior growth among the three species examined. Gracilaria gracilis had the highest agar content [36.8–46.6% dry weight (dw)]. Agar yield from Vietnamese gracilarioids did not exceed 30% dw. Gel strength of native agar from Gracilaria gracilis was two-fold higher that from Vietnamese species (278 g cm⁻² vs 130 g cm⁻²). Alkali pretreatment increased gel strength significantly for Gracilaria gracilis (1.4-fold), and G. tenuistipitata and Gp. bailiniae (2.3-fold) compared with native agar. The results suggest that Gracilaria gracilis may be a suitable species for production of reasonably good quality agar.     

Structure and properties of agar from two unexploited agarophytes from Venezuela

The red seaweeds Gelidiella acerosa and Gracilaria mammillaris growing along the coast of Venezuela were investigated as potential economic sources of agar. Agar extracted from Gracilaria mammillaris accounted for 27% of the algal dry weight but had quite a poor gelling ability because of the presence of alkali-stable sulphate groups on the D-galactose residue. However, the gel strength of its aqueous solutions was considerably enhanced by the addition of potassium, sodium and calcium ions (up to 1N). On the contrary, the galactan from Gelidiella acerosa (yield of about 20% w/w) exhibited quite good properties. In particular, the gel strength was comparable to that of commercial agaroses. Sulphate esters were not detectable by chemical methods and NMR spectroscopy revealed an agarose backbone with a high degree of methylation on both D and L-galactose residues.     

Does storage time influence yield and agar properties in the tropical agarophyte Gracilaria cornea?

The agar yield and quality characteristics of Gracilaria cornea from Yucatán, Mexico, werestudied during 18 months of storage. Biomass wasstored at a temperature of 22.1 ± 0.9 ^°Cand humidity of 59.8±3.6%. The agar contentvaried erratically, but the average value waspractically constant over the storage period with an average of 20.1 ± 1.5±. Gel strength, gelling and meltingtemperatures were negatively affected by the totalstorage time. No significant changes were found duringthe first five months for these characteristics withmean values of 1134 ± 57 g cm^-2, 40.8 ±0.4 ^°C and 91.2 ± 0.9 ^°Crespectively. Agar degradation was evident after thefifth month and accounted for a 17± loss in gelstrength and 7± in gelling and meltingtemperatures. Nevertheless, gel strength valuesremained around 930 ± 23 g cm^-2 with nosignificant changes until the end of the storageperiod. The decrease in gel strength showed asignificant relationship with decrease in3,6-anhydrogalactose but not variation in sulphatecontent. This was probably due to agar hydrolysiscaused by enzymatic processes of endogenous and/ormicrobial origin. These results suggest that thetropical G. cornea had a similar resistance todegradation during storage to that observed for G. chilensis, a cold water species. Agar qualityand yield in G. cornea after one and a half yearof storage are within the range of food grade agar.     

The influence of variations in irradiance upon morphology in an unattached form of Gracilaria gracilis (Stackhouse) Steentoft during field cultivation, South Primorye, Russia

The changes in morphology and anatomy of an unattached form ofGracilaria gracilis from Southern Primorye, Russia, wereinvestigated as a response to different photon irradiances. Plants were grownat5, 10, 60 and 95% of the incident PAR in the field from mid July to midSeptember, and a quantitative evaluation of various morphologicalcharacteristics was made: thickness and length of branches, thickness of thecuticle and cell walls, cell length and diameter, the ratios between the areaofphotosynthetic and structural tissue. All characteristics showed variationsthatcould be attributed to irradiance. The narrow light range of 60–95% PARwas the growth optimum for Gracilaria gracilis. At theseirradiances, the biomass increase was related to the growth of the branches inlength (r = 0.95, P < 0.05) and thickness (r= 0.99, P < 0.05), and increased branch density.Growth of the branches only in length, the formation of the thin cortical cellwalls and cuticle, and increased ratios of photosynthetic to structural tissueswere among the effects of low irradiances (5–10% PAR) on plantmorphology.The relationship of morphology and productivity factors to irradiance intensityprovide evidence for their environmental rather than genetic control.Differences in thallus morphology and anatomy together with variations inlevelsof photosynthetic pigments are discussed in terms of the adaptive strategies ofunattached Gracilaria gracilis to light fluctuations.     

常规培养与缺氧条件下BCG菌体内外sRNA的表达检测

近期发现细菌的sRNA在菌体内和菌体外均具有一定的生物学功能.为研究结核分枝杆菌菌体内外sRNA的表达情况,通过分析卡介苗(Bacillus Calmette-Guerin Vaccine,BCG)菌体和外泌体RNA测序结果,采用RT-qPCR法检测常规培养与缺氧条件下BCG菌体内外sRNA相对表达量,分析菌体内外sR...     

Phenology and thallus size in a non-native population of Gracilaria vermiculophylla

Phenology, or seasonal variation in life cycle events, is poorly described for many macroalgal species. We describe the phenology of a non-native population of Gracilaria vermiculophylla whose thalli are free-living or anchored by decorating polychaetes to tube caps. At a site in South Carolina, USA, we sampled 100 thalli approximately every month from January 2014 to January 2015. We assessed the reproductive state and measured thallus size based on wet weight, thallus length, and thallus surface area from herbarium mounts. Because life cycle stage cannot be assigned using morphology, we implemented a PCR assay to determine the life cycle stage—tetrasporophyte, female gametophyte, or male gametophyte—of each thallus. Tetrasporophytes dominated throughout the year, making up 81%–100% of thalli sampled per month. Reproductive tetrasporophytes varied between 0% and 65% of monthly samples and were most common in warm summer months (July through September) when thalli also tended to be larger. The vast majority of the reproductive thalli were worm-anchored and not fixed to hard substratum via a holdfast. Thus, free-living thalli can be reproductive and potentially seed new non-native populations. Given G. vermiculophylla reproduction seems tied closely to temperature, our work suggests phenology may change with climate-related changes in seawater temperatures. We also highlight the importance of understanding the natural history of macroalgae to better understand the consequence of range expansions on population dynamics.     

Nitrogen translocation in a clonal dune perennial,Hydrocotyle bonariensis

Summary Hydrocotyle bonariensis, a common rhizomatous perennial of coastal North Carolina, forms extensive clones in dune systems characterized by a patchy nitrogen distribution. An experiment was conducted in which Hydrocotyle clones were grown across artificially created soil nitrogen gradients to determine: (1) the effect of soil nitrogen availability and nitrogen translocation on clonal structure and (2) the costs versus benefits of nitrogen translocation as measured by sexual and clonal reproduction. Acropetal translocation of nitrogen resulted in highly significant benefits to clones growing from areas of high N to areas of low N. Limited basipetal translocation was also demonstrated. Hydrocotyle ramets responded to increased nitrogen availability, from either intraclonal translocation or immediate uptake from the soil, by producing branches. Nitrogen level, however, had no effect on internode distances. Clonal integration of nitrogen, in tandem with a plastic morphology, allow Hydrocotyle clones to expand across a nitrogen-limited dune environment and to locally exploit nitrogen patches when they are encountered.     

Changes in 32P-phosphorus compounds during translocation in Laminaria digitata (L.) lamouroux

³²P was applied to a Laminaria digitata thallus and the pattern of ³²P phosphorylated compounds was studied, as a function of time, in the different tissues involved in translocation, i.e. source, pathway and sinks. The results showed that, 3 hours after absorption by the uptake region (lamina), the bulk of the radioactivity was incorporated into organic compounds (70 to 80% of total ³²P taken up), hexose monophosphates being the heaviest labelled. Further change in that region was marked by an accumulation of ³²P in the inorganic pool (65 to 70% after 13 days). Conversely, the ³²P pattern in the medulla of the stipe, which initially showed a similar pattern to the uptake region, did not vary during translocation. The pattern of ³²P distribution into sinks (growing stipe peripheral tissue or hapteron) leads to accumulation of the radioactive element in inorganic and acid-insoluble fractions. These results are discussed in terms of comparative distribution of ³²P in the different parts of the thallus and suggest that phosphate moves as Pi in that alga.Abbreviations TCA trichloroacetic acid - Po organic phosphate - Po sol acid-soluble organic phosphate fraction - Po insol acidinsoluble organic phosphate fraction - Pi morganic phosphate fraction - P lip lipidic phosphate - Np protein nitrogen - ATP adenosine triphosphate - ADP adenosine diphosphate - PEP phosphoenolpyruvic acid - PGA phosphoglyceric acid - G-1-P glucose-1-phosphate - G-6-P glucose-6-phosphate - UDPG uridine diphosphoglucose     

Changes in Thallus Weight and Size in the Green Alga Ulva fenestrata under Artificial Conditions

From August to October 2002, daily measurements of the thallus weight and area were taken in sporophytes and male and female gametophytes of Ulva fenestrata at similar developmental phases. The algae were reared in aquaria at a constant temperature (22 ± 0.5°C); illumination was applied for 12h a day at a photosynthetically active radiation intensity of 400 E/(m² s). All generations showed a linear increase in the thallus weight and area over time with the same relative daily increment (8 to 15%). Generations differed significantly in time to onset of sporogenesis or gametogenesis. The female gametophyte, sporophyte, and male gametophyte began to release gametes or spores in 7, 10, and 15 days, respectively. A scheme for the distribution of cells among age groups is proposed. The scheme seems to account for the linear pattern of thallus growth.     

Induction of fast-growing and morphologically different strains through intergeneric protoplast fusions of Ulva and Enteromorpha (Ulvales,Chlorophyta)

Isolated protoplasts of Ulva pertusa and Enteromorpha prolifera were electrically fused. Treatment of protoplasts in 1% protease for 15–20 min prior to fusion enhanced fusion ability. Protoplasts from each fusion partner were mixed together in 1:1 ratio in low conductivity electrofusion solution at a density of 1 × 10⁵ cells ml⁻¹ before subjecting them to electrofusion. The protoplasts were aligned in AC field (1MHz, 25 V for 10–15 s) and subsequently fused by a high intensity single DC pulse of 250 V for 25 μs duration. Fusion buffer supplemented with 1 mM calcium and 1 mM magnesium yielded optimum fusion frequencies (about 18–24%). Entrapment of fusion treated cells inside agarose/agar plate facilitated marking and regeneration of fusion products. The regeneration patterns of fused protoplasts were similar to normal (unfused) protoplast development. Most of the regenerated plants from fusion products had a thallus similar to either U. pertusa type or E. prolifera type. Although some of the plants of the former were morphologically similar to U. pertusa, but most had a higher growth rate (1.9 to 1.5 times) than U. pertusa. Furthermore the thallus of some plants had a characteristic irregular and dentate margin, which was never observed in the parental type.     

Preliminary Estimation of the Factors Influencing the Distribution of the Midlittoral Crab Portumnus lysianassa (Herbst, 1796)

In order to acquire information on the factors influencing the distribution of the Mediterranean endemic species Portumnus lysianassa (Herbst, 1796), which lives in the soft substratum midlittoral zone, 83 stations were selected along almost the entire Greek coast. In each sampling station, dredging was carried out, just above the rise of the surf zone, and sediment samples were taken with a core sampler. Two faunal samples were also taken by means of a quadrat from the lower midlittoral zone. The preliminary results of this study show that: P. lysianassa prefers to burrow in the rise of the surf zone; wherever the sediment becomes very coarse or very fine the crab populations decline; there is a correlation between the population abundance of the midlittoral bivalve Donacilla cornea (Poli, 1795) and P. lysianassa, and, moreover, this crab species is related to the composition of the midlittoral assemblage; also, P. lysianassa abundance is negatively correlated with the organic matter content of the sediment; in very exposed areas, D. cornea can be replaced or co-exist with the infralittoral species Donax trunculus (Linnaeus, 1758), and, in these cases, P. lysianassa can be replaced by the closely related infralittoral species Portumnus latipes (Pennant, 1777); when low temperatures or intensive wave action, as well as disturbance caused by swimmers in summer prevail, the population of this crab descends in the upper infralittoral zone.     

Developmental Studies in Porphyra Vietnamensis: a High-Temperature Resistant Species from the Indian Coast

Porphyra vietnamensis Tanaka & Pham-Hoang Ho (Bangiales, Rhodophyta) is a tropical seaweed collected from the west coast of India. Thalli of the blade phase are found growing only during the rainy season between July and September. They grow on rocky intertidal or subtidal substrata or as epiphytes on other seaweeds such as Enteromorpha flexuosa and Chaetomorpha media. The gametophytic thallus is monostromatic and covered with spines at the base. The species is monoecious. Male gametangia are found in patches that are distributed in the upper part of the thallus. Archeospores are found at the thallus margins and give rise to the blade phase after one week of germination even at 30 ^∘ C. Zygotospores germinated at 25 ^∘ C into conchocelis within three days from the date of their inoculation. Conchospores were released at 30 ^∘ C. The young blades grew at 32 ^∘ C in the laboratory.     

Microscopic observations on tissue calcium distribution in the brown alga,Undaria pinnatifida (Harvey) Suringar

The distribution of Ca²⁺ in thallus tissues of the brown algaUndaria pinnatifida was investigated by microspectro-photometric analysis after fixation with Carnoy's reagent and staining with an alizarine sulfonate dye. Ca²⁺ accumulation in the young thallus was much higher in mucilage cells of the basal than the apical region; there was least in the pith of the basal region. A roughly uniform pattern was found in the stipe from the central part of the young thallus, while a highly irregular pattern occurred in both stipe and blade from the corresponding area of the mature thallus; the Ca²⁺ content was much lower than in the cortex, mucilage cells and vacuoles of the mature stipe than in the corresponding area of the young stipe. The contents of all regions of the mature blade were higher than those in the young blade; they were particularly high in mucilage cells.     

Effect of relative water motion on photosynthetic rate of red alga Gracitaria conferta

Bulk water velocities and local relative velocities generated in experimental tanks around and within thalli of free moving Gracilaria conferta were estimated according to the dissolution rate of benzoic acid sticks. Boundary-layer thickness and HCO ₃ ^– -mass-transfer coefficient were derived from the water velocities. Average relative velocities varied between 12 cm s ^–1 to less than 0.1 cm s ^–1 as a function of the absolute water flow in the tank, alga shape and location within the thallus. The lower range of velocities was observed at 20% of maximum aeration in the inner part of the plant. In laboratory experiments, photosynthetic rates, as determined in a closed Clark-type O₂-electrode system, increased by 30%–50% when water velocity was increased from zero to about 1.5 cm s ^–1. Another minor increase was obtained between 1.5 cm s ^–1 and 8 cm s ^–1 water velocity. This response to water motion was affected by bulk inorganic carbon concentration and by plant condition, as was reflected from the differences in the response in the winter and spring. It might be suggested that under carbon saturation, water velocity above 2 cm s^–1 provided almost sufficient flow to saturate carbon uptake.