A tripartite nuclear localization signal in the PDZ-domain protein L-periaxin

The murine Periaxin gene encodes two PDZ-domain proteins in myelin-forming Schwann cells of the vertebrate peripheral nervous system (Dytrych, L., Sherman, D. L., Gillespie, C. S., and Brophy, P. J. (1998) J. Biol. Chem. 273, 5794-5800). Here we show that L-periaxin is targeted to the nucleus of embryonic Schwann cells. Subsequently, the protein redistributes to the plasma membrane processes of the myelinating Schwann cell where it is believed to function in a signaling complex. In contrast, L-periaxin remains in the nucleus when expressed ectopically in oligodendrocytes, the myelin-forming glia of the central nervous system. The nuclear localization signal (NLS) is basic and tripartite and comprises three signals that act synergistically. Nuclear targeting of L-periaxin is energy-dependent and is inhibited by cell-cell contact. These data show that L-periaxin is a member of a growing family of proteins that can shuttle between the nucleus and cortical signaling/adherence complexes.     

FGF modulates the PDGF-driven pathway of oligodendrocyte development

PDGF promotes the growth of oligodendrocyte type-2 astrocyte (O-2A) glial progenitor cells and allows their timely differentiation into oligodendrocytes, the CNS myelin-forming cells. We demonstrate that basic FGF is a potent mitogen for brain O-2A progenitor cells, but blocks their differentiation into oligodendrocytes. Treatment with basic FGF also influences the level of expression of PDGF receptors on O-2A progenitor cells. These cells express only the alpha chain PDGF receptor, and the levels of PDGF alpha receptors decrease as the cells differentiate. In contrast, basic FGF maintains a high level of functionally responsive PDGF alpha receptors in O-2A progenitors. Thus basic FGF activates a signaling pathway that can positively regulate PDGF receptors in O-2A progenitor cells. In this way basic FGF or an FGF-like factor may modulate the production of myelin-forming cells in the CNS.     

NG2 cells generate both oligodendrocytes and gray matter astrocytes

NG2 glia constitute a fourth major glial cell type in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS) that is distinct from other cell types. Although circumstantial evidence suggests that some NG2 glia differentiate into oligodendrocytes, their in vivo fate has not been directly examined. We have used the bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) modification technique to generate transgenic mice that express DsRed or Cre specifically in NG2-expressing (NG2+) cells. In NG2DsRedBAC transgenic mice, DsRed was expressed specifically in NG2+ cells throughout the postnatal CNS. When the differentiation potential of NG2+ cells in vitro was examined using DsRed+NG2+ cells purified from perinatal transgenic brains, the majority of the cells either remained as NG2+ cells or differentiated into oligodendrocytes. In addition, DsRed+NG2+ cells also differentiated into astrocytes. The in vivo fate of NG2 glia was examined in mice that were double transgenic for NG2creBAC and the Cre reporter Z/EG. In the double transgenic mice, the Cre reporter EGFP was detected in myelinating oligodendrocytes and in a subpopulation of protoplasmic astrocytes in the gray matter of ventrolateral forebrain but not in fibrous astrocytes of white matter. These observations suggest that NG2+ cells are precursors of oligodendrocytes and some protoplasmic astrocytes in gray matter.     

Volume transmission in activity-dependent regulation of myelinating glia

The importance of neural impulse activity in regulating neuronal plasticity is widely appreciated; increasingly, it is becoming apparent that activity-dependent communication between neurons and glia is critical in regulating many aspects of nervous system development and plasticity. This communication takes place not only at the synapse, but also between premyelinating axons and glia, which form myelin in the PNS and CNS. Recent work indicates that neural impulse activity releases ATP and adenosine from non-synaptic regions of neurons, which activates purinergic receptors on myelinating glia. Acting through this receptor system, neural impulse activity can regulate gene expression, mitosis, differentiation, and myelination of Schwann cells (SCs) and oligodendrocytes, helping coordinate nervous system development with functional activity in the perinatal period. ATP and adenosine have opposite effects on differentiation of Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes, providing a possible explanation for the opposite effects of impulse activity reported on myelination in the CNS and PNS.     

Age-dependent fate and lineage restriction of single NG2 cells

NG2-expressing glia (NG2 cells, polydendrocytes) appear in the embryonic brain, expand perinatally, and persist widely throughout the gray and white matter of the mature central nervous system. We have previously reported that NG2 cells generate oligodendrocytes in both gray and white matter and a subset of protoplasmic astrocytes in the gray matter of the ventral forebrain and spinal cord. To investigate the temporal changes in NG2 cell fate, we generated NG2creER?BAC transgenic mice, in which tamoxifen-inducible Cre is expressed in NG2 cells. Cre induction at embryonic day 16.5, postnatal day (P) 2, P30 and P60 in mice that were double transgenic for NG2creER?BAC and the Cre reporter revealed that NG2 cells in the postnatal brain generate only NG2 cells or oligodendrocytes, whereas NG2 cells in the embryonic brain generate protoplasmic astrocytes in the gray matter of the ventral forebrain in addition to oligodendrocytes and NG2 cells. Analysis of cell clusters from single NG2 cells revealed that more than 80% of the NG2 cells in the P2 brain give rise to clusters consisting exclusively of oligodendrocytes, whereas the majority of the NG2 cells in the P60 brain generate clusters that contain only NG2 cells or a mixture of oligodendrocytes and NG2 cells. Furthermore, live cell imaging of single NG2 cells from early postnatal brain slices revealed that NG2 cells initially divide symmetrically to produce two daughter NG2 cells and that differentiation into oligodendrocytes occurred after 2-3 days.     

Synantocytes: New functions for novel NG2 expressing glia

In the adult CNS, antibodies to the NG2 chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan (CSPG) label a large population of glia that have the antigenic phenotype of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPC). However, NG2 expressing glia have the morphological phenotype of astrocytes, not OPC. We propose adult NG2 expressing glia are a distinct mature glial type, which we have called syantocytes or synantoglia after the Greek ‘to contact’, because they specifically contact neurons and axons at synapses and nodes of Ranvier, respectively. Synantocytes are highly complex cells that elaborate multiple branching processes and are an equally significant population in both white and grey matter. We provide evidence that phenotypically distinct synantocytes develop postnatally and that neither postnatal nor adult synantocytes depend on axons for their survival, indicating they respond with markedly different behaviours to the environmental cues and axonal signals that control the differentiation of OPC into oligodendrocytes. The primary response of synantocytes to changes in the CNS environment is a rapid and localised reactive gliosis. Reactive synantocytes interact intimately with astrocytes and macrophages at lesion sites, consistent with them playing a key role in the orchestration of scar formation that protects the underlying neural tissue. It is our hypothesis that synantocytes are specialised to monitor and respond to changes in the integrity of the CNS, by way of their cellular contacts, repertoire of plasmalemmal receptors and the NG2 molecule itself. To paraphrase Del Rio Hortega, we propose that synantocytes are the fifth element in the CNS, in addition to neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and microglia.     

Impact of transcription factor Sox8 on oligodendrocyte specification in the mouse embryonic spinal cord

The myelin-forming oligodendrocytes of the mouse embryonic spinal cord express the three group E Sox proteins Sox8, Sox9, and Sox10. They require Sox9 for their specification from neuroepithelial cells of the ventricular zone and Sox10 for their terminal differentiation and myelination. Here, we show that during oligodendrocyte development, Sox8 is expressed after Sox9, but before Sox10. Loss of Sox8 did not impair oligodendrocyte specification by itself, but enhanced the Sox9-dependent defect. Oligodendrocyte progenitors were still generated in the Sox9-deficient spinal cord, albeit at 20-fold lower rates than in the wildtype. Combined loss of Sox8 and Sox9, in contrast, led to a near complete loss of oligodendrocytes. Other cell types such as ventricular zone cells and radial glia remained unaffected in their numbers as well as their rates of proliferation and apoptosis. Oligodendrocyte development thus relies on the differential contribution of all three group E Sox proteins at various phases.     

Expression and Localization of Myelin Basic Protein in Oligodendrocytes and Transfected Fibroblasts

Myelin basic protein (MBP) is a major structural component of myelin. It is expressed exclusively in myelinating glia (oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS) and is localized to the cytoplasmic surface of the plasma membrane and myelin membrane produced by these cells. The work described here concerns the mechanism of plasma membrane localization of MBP in myelinating glial cells and whether it involves differentiated functions specific to these cells or general functions of plasma membrane assembly common to all cells. To this end, the subcellular localization of endogenous MBP in mouse oligodendrocytes was compared with that of transiently expressed MBP in monkey fibroblasts (Cos-1 cells) transfected with an MBP expression vector containing cDNA for rat 14K MBP. The steady-state levels of MBP-specific RNA and of MBP polypeptide expressed in the transfected fibroblasts were comparable to the levels expressed in oligodendrocytes in primary culture. MBP localization was analyzed in whole cells by immunofluorescence and in specific intracellular compartments by subcellular fractionation. The results show that MBP expressed in wild-type oligodendrocytes is localized to the plasma membrane. In contrast, MBP expressed in transfected fibroblasts appears dispersed in the cytoplasm and is distributed uniformly among the various subcellular fractions.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Developmental expression of MOSP in cultured oligodendrocytes

Myelin/oligodendrocyte specific protein (MOSP) is a recently characterized 48 kDa surface membrane protein that is expressed exclusively by oligodendrocytes in the CNS. In this report, evidence is presented for the identification of the stage in the oligodendrocyte lineage when MOSP is first expressed. MOSP initially appears on immature oligodendrocytes about four to five days postnatal, which is about one to two days after the appearance of galactocerebroside and sulfatide. The initial expression of MOSP occurs at the stage in development when oligodendrocytes are elaborating processes and just beginning to form membrane sheets. Since 1) MOSP is capable of signaling increases in microtubular structures in oligodendrocytes and 2) microtubular structures may be essential for extension of growing processes and the formation of membrane sheaths, MOSP may play an important role in differentiation of oligodendrocytes and the formation of myelin.Special issue dedicated to Dr. Marjorie B. Lees.     

Galactocerebroside is expressed by non-myelin-forming Schwann cells in situ

Interest in the glycosphingolipid galactocerebroside (GC) is based on the consensus that in the nervous system it is expressed only by myelin-forming Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes, and that it has a specific role in the elaboration of myelin sheaths. We have investigated GC distribution in two rat nerves--the sciatic, containing a mixture of myelinated and non-myelinated axons, and the cervical sympathetic trunk, in which greater than 99% of axons are non-myelinated. Immunohistochemical experiments using mono- and polyclonal GC antibodies were carried out on teased nerves and cultured Schwann cells, and GC synthesis was assayed biochemically. Unexpectedly, we found that mature non-myelin-forming Schwann cells in situ and in short-term cultures express unambiguous GC immunoreactivity, comparable in intensity to that of myelinated fibers or myelin-forming cells in short-term cultures. GC synthesis was also detected in both sympathetic trunks and sciatic nerves. In the developing sympathetic trunk, GC was first seen at day 19 in utero, the number of GC-positive cells rising to approximately 95% at postnatal day 10. In contrast, the time course of GC appearance in the sciatic nerve shows two separate phases of increase, between day 18 in utero and postnatal day 1, and between postnatal days 20 and 35, at which stage approximately 94% of the cells express GC. These time courses suggest that Schwann cells, irrespective of subsequent differentiation pathway, start expressing GC at about the same time as cell division stops. We suggest that GC is a ubiquitous component of mature Schwann cell membranes in situ. Therefore, the role of GC needs to be reevaluated, since its function is clearly not restricted to events involved in myelination.     

The Polarity Protein Scribble Regulates Myelination and Remyelination in the Central Nervous System

The development and regeneration of myelin by oligodendrocytes, the myelin-forming cells of the central nervous system (CNS), requires profound changes in cell shape that lead to myelin sheath initiation and formation. Here, we demonstrate a requirement for the basal polarity complex protein Scribble in CNS myelination and remyelination. Scribble is expressed throughout oligodendroglial development and is up-regulated in mature oligodendrocytes where it is localised to both developing and mature CNS myelin sheaths. Knockdown of Scribble expression in cultured oligodendroglia results in disrupted morphology and myelination initiation. When Scribble expression is conditionally eliminated in the myelinating glia of transgenic mice, myelin initiation in CNS is disrupted, both during development and following focal demyelination, and longitudinal extension of the myelin sheath is disrupted. At later stages of myelination, Scribble acts to negatively regulate myelin thickness whilst suppressing the extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK)/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP) kinase pathway, and localises to non-compact myelin flanking the node of Ranvier where it is required for paranodal axo-glial adhesion. These findings demonstrate an essential role for the evolutionarily-conserved regulators of intracellular polarity in myelination and remyelination.     

Structure-function analysis of protein complexes involved in the molecular architecture of juxtaparanodal regions of myelinated fibers

Demyelinating disorders, including multiple sclerosis (MS), are common causes of neurological disability. One critical step towards the management and therapy of demyelinating diseases is to understand the basic functions of myelinating glia and their relationship with axons. Axons and myelinating glia, oligodendrocytes in the central (CNS) and Schwann cells in the peripheral (PNS) nervous systems, reciprocally influence each other's development and trophism. These interactions are critical for the formation of distinct axonal domains in myelinated fibers that ensure the rapid propagation of action potentials. Macromolecular complexes mediating axo-glial interactions in these domains have been identified, consisting of members of the immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) of adhesion molecules and the neurexin/NCP superfamily as well as other proteins. We have investigated the molecular details of axo-glial interactions in the juxtaparanodal region of myelinated fibers by utilizing domain-specific GFP constructs and immunoprecipitation assays on transfected cells. We have shown that the immunoglobulin domains of the IgSF member TAG-1/Cnt-2 are necessary and sufficient for the direct, cis interaction of this protein with Caspr2 and potassium channels.     

ATP: a ubiquitous gliotransmitter integrating neuron-glial networks

Astrocytes are ideally situated to integrate glial and neuronal functions and neurovascular coupling by way of their multiple contacts with neurons, glia and blood vessels. There is a high degree of specialisation of astroglial membranes at the different sites of contact, including the expression of neurotransmitter receptors, ion channels, transporters and gap junctional proteins. An apparently universal property of astrocytes throughout the CNS is their responsiveness to ATP acting via metabotropic P2Y receptors, with a prominent role for the P2Y1 receptor subtype. Activation of astroglial P2Y receptors triggers a rise in intracellular calcium, which is the substrate for astroglial excitability and intercellular communication. In addition, astrocytes have a number of mechanisms for the release of ATP, which can be considered a 'gliotransmitter'. Astrocytes may be the most widespread source of ATP release in the CNS, and astroglial ATP and its metabolite adenosine activate purine receptors on neurons, microglia, oligodendrocytes and blood vessels. There is compelling evidence that astroglial ATP and adenosine regulate neuronal synaptic strength, although the physiological significance of this astrocyte-to-neuron signalling is questioned. A less appreciated aspect of astrocyte signalling is that they also release neurotransmitters onto other glia. Notably, both ATP and adenosine control microglial behaviour and regulate oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelination. P2 receptors also mediate injury responses in all glial cell types, with a prominent role for the P2X7 receptor subtype. In addition, ATP is a potent vasoconstrictor and astrocytes provide a route for coupling blood flow to neuronal activity by way of their synaptic and perivascular connections. Thus, astrocytes are the fulcrum of neuron-glial-vascular networks and purinergic signalling is the primary mechanism by which astrocytes can integrate the functions of these diverse elements.     

Spatially discrete FGF-mediated signalling directs glial morphogenesis.

Neurons provide critical signals that regulate both the number and differentiation of glia. In addition, glia are attracted to and enwrap neuronal axonal processes. FGF-like signalling is thought to be one of the many potential axon-derived morphogenetic signals, however, the multiple roles of FGFs have made experimental tests of these signals difficult in vivo. In the Drosophila FGF receptor mutant heartless, glia migrate to axons, but fail to elongate around them. This study shows that in the similar but larger grasshopper CNS, FGF signalling is likely to mediate one step in the close interaction between glia and axons. FGF2-coated beads attract glia in the CNS and compete with axons for their resident, enwrapped glia. In addition, bath applied FGF2 causes mature axonal glia, which normally enwrap axon tracts, to round up. FGF2 activates the product of the grasshopper heartless FGF receptor gene and probably interferes with the normal function of an endogenous axon-associated FGF-like molecule. It is proposed that insect axons provide a critical spatially restricted FGF-like signal that induces glia to enwrap them.     

SCIP: a glial POU domain gene regulated by cyclic AMP

We have isolated cDNA clones encoding SCIP, a POU domain gene expressed by myelin-forming glial of the central and peripheral nervous systems. In purified Schwann cells cultured in the absence of neurons, expression of SCIP is suppressed. This suppression is relieved by cAMP, and induction of SCIP mRNA by this second messenger precedes cAMP induction of myelin-specific genes. Similarly, SCIP expression in vivo precedes full expression of myelin-specific genes in developing oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells. The sequence of the SCIP POU domain is identical to that of Tst-1, a recently identified member of a family of POU domain genes expressed by restricted subsets of neurons. Our results demonstrate that SCIP is also expressed by myelin-forming glia and suggest that it plays a central role in the progressive determination of these cells and their commitment to myelination.     

Telomerase and oligodendrocyte differentiation.

Myelin in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS) is produced by oligodendrocytes, most of which arise from oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) during late embryonic and early postnatal development. Both external and internal cues have been implicated in regulating OPC exit from the cell cycle and differentiation into oligodendrocytes. In this study, we demonstrate that differentiation of cultured OPCs into mature oligodendrocytes is associated with lower levels of activity of telomerase, the ribonucleoprotein that synthesizes telomeric DNA at the ends of chromosomes. Differentiation is also associated with lower levels of mRNA encoding the catalytic subunit of telomerase (TERT), whereas no difference is seen in the expression of its telomeric template RNA component (TR). These data suggest a possible role for telomerase during normal growth and differentiation of oligodendrocytes that may be relevant to the mechanism of myelination in the CNS.     

Glial Promoter Selectivity following AAV-Delivery to the Immature Brain

Recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors are versatile tools for gene transfer to the central nervous system (CNS) and proof-of-concept studies in adult rodents have shown that the use of cell type-specific promoters is sufficient to target AAV-mediated transgene expression to glia. However, neurological disorders caused by glial pathology usually have an early onset. Therefore, modelling and treatment of these conditions require expanding the concept of targeted glial transgene expression by promoter selectivity for gene delivery to the immature CNS. Here, we have investigated the AAV-mediated green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression driven by the myelin basic protein (MBP) or glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) promoters in the developing mouse brain. Generally, the extent of transgene expression after infusion at immature stages was widespread and higher than in adults. The GFAP promoter-driven GFP expression was found to be highly specific for astrocytes following vector infusion to the brain of neonates and adults. In contrast, the selectivity of the MBP promoter for oligodendrocytes was poor following neonatal AAV delivery, but excellent after vector injection at postnatal day 10. To extend these findings obtained in naïve mice to a disease model, we performed P10 infusions of AAV-MBP-GFP in aspartoacylase (ASPA)-deficient mouse mutants presenting with early onset oligodendrocyte pathology. Spread of GFP expression and selectivity for oligodendrocytes in ASPA-mutants was comparable with our observations in normal animals. Our data suggest that direct AAV infusion to the developing postnatal brain, utilising cellular promoters, results in targeted and long-term transgene expression in glia. This approach will be relevant for disease modelling and gene therapy for the treatment of glial pathology.