A Study of Erwinia carotovora Phage Resistance with the Use of Temperate Bacteriophage ZF40

The causes of the unique phage resistance of the pectinolytic phytopathogenic strains of Erwinia carotovora were studied with the use of temperate bacteriophage ZF40. It was shown that, in these bacteria, the bacteriophage–cell interaction can be substantially blocked at the adsorption level. An adequate indicator for studying the temperate bacteriophages of erwinias was developed on the basis of mutants resistant to macromolecular bacteriocins. Various restriction–modification systems, which influence cell resistance to bacteriophages, were revealed for the first time in E. carotovora. The phage resistance was shown to be determined by the wide occurrence of homoimmune temperate viruses in pectinolytic erwinias.     

Temperate bacteriophage ZF40 of Erwinia carotovora: phage particle structure and DNA restriction analysis

Structural organization of the temperate bacteriophage ZF40 of Erwinia carotovora was studied. Phage ZF40 proved to be a typical member of the Myoviridae family (morphotype A1). Phage particles consist of an isometric head 58.3 nm in diameter and a contractile 86.3-nm-long tail with a complex basal plate and short tail fibers (31.5 nm). Phage tail sheath, a truncated cone in shape, is characterized by specific packaging of structural subunits. The ZF40 phage genome is 45.8 kb in size, as determined by restriction analysis, and contains DNA cohesive ends. The ZF40 phage of Erwinia carotovora is assumed to be a new species of bacteriophages specific for enterobacteria.     

Rapid identification and differentiation of the soft rot erwinias by 16S-23S intergenic transcribed spacer-PCR and restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses

Current identification methods for the soft rot erwinias are both imprecise and time-consuming. We have used the 16S-23S rRNA intergenic transcribed spacer (ITS) to aid in their identification. Analysis by ITS-PCR and ITS-restriction fragment length polymorphism was found to be a simple, precise, and rapid method compared to current molecular and phenotypic techniques. The ITS was amplified from Erwinia and other genera using universal PCR primers. After PCR, the banding patterns generated allowed the soft rot erwinias to be differentiated from all other Erwinia and non-Erwinia species and placed into one of three groups (I to III). Group I comprised all Erwinia carotovora subsp. atroseptica and subsp. betavasculorum isolates. Group II comprised all E. carotovora subsp. carotovora, subsp. odorifera, and subsp. wasabiae and E. cacticida isolates, and group III comprised all E. chrysanthemi isolates. To increase the level of discrimination further, the ITS-PCR products were digested with one of two restriction enzymes. Digestion with CfoI identified E. carotovora subsp. atroseptica and subsp. betavasculorum (group I) and E. chrysanthemi (group III) isolates, while digestion with RsaI identified E. carotovora subsp. wasabiae, subsp. carotovora, and subsp. odorifera/carotovora and E. cacticida isolates (group II). In the latter case, it was necessary to distinguish E. carotovora subsp. odorifera and subsp. carotovora using the alpha-methyl glucoside test. Sixty suspected soft rot erwinia isolates from Australia were identified as E. carotovora subsp. atroseptica, E. chrysanthemi, E. carotovora subsp. carotovora, and non-soft rot species. Ten "atypical" E. carotovora subsp. atroseptica isolates were identified as E. carotovora subsp. atroseptica, subsp. carotovora, and subsp. betavasculorum and non-soft rot species, and two "atypical" E. carotovora subsp. carotovora isolates were identified as E. carotovora subsp. carotovora and subsp. atroseptica.     

Stable expression of the Lactobacillus casei bacteriophage A2 repressor blocks phage propagation during milk fermentation

A general strategy was applied to implement resistance against temperate bacteriophages that infect food fermentation starters through cloning and expression of the phage repressor. Lactobacillus casei ATCC 393 and phage A2 were used to demonstrate its feasibility as milk fermentation is drastically inhibited when the strain is infected by this phage. The engineered strain Lact. casei EM40::cI, which has the A2 repressor gene (cI) integrated into the genome, was completely resistant and able to ferment milk whether phage was present or not. In addition, viable phages were eliminated from the milk, probably through adsorption to the cell wall. Finally, the integration of cI in the genome resulted in a stable resistance phenotype, being unnecessary selective pressure during milk fermentation.     

Isolation and preliminary characterization of cryptic plasmids from Erwinia carotovora]

Of the fifty-two Erwinia carotovora strains studied, sixteen were found to contain extrachromosomal DNA (plasmids) from 2.5 to 129 kbp in size. Some E. carotovora strains bore two to five different plasmids. Experiments showed that the cryptic plasmids of erwinia are not responsible for their resistance to antibiotics and are not involved in the synthesis of macromolecular colicin-like carotovoricins. At the same time, one of the E. carotovora strains, 13A, augmented the production of carotovoricin after curing from one of its plasmids, 47.7-kbp pCA 6-2. Three E. carotovora subsp. carotovora strains and one E. carotovora subsp. atroseptica strain contained large 129-kbp plasmids, which may play a role in the ecology of phytopathogenic pectinolytic erwinia.     

The study of lysogeny at the Pasteur Institute (1950–1960): an epistemologically open system

Many historical studies have been devoted to the French school of molecular biology, in particular to the work of Jacques Monod on adaptive enzymes. By focusing on François Jacob’s studies on lysogeny between 1950 and 1960, we intend to redress the imbalance of historiography, as well as proposing a more fruitful point of view for understanding the relative importance of international contacts and local traditions in the genesis of the operon model.Elie Wollman and Jacob’s work on temperate bacteriophages rendered respectable a system that had been considered an artefact for more than two decades. They did this firstly by modelling their studies on those of the US phage group and secondly by basing these studies on a complex vision of the relations between bacteria and bacteriophages. The interaction between bacteria and temperate bacteriophages was considered ab initio as a biochemical process, the mechanisms of which would eventually be characterized. It was also considered as a “normal” phenomenon that could be used as a model to understand the process of differentiation, as well as the role of viruses in diseases and cancer. The temperate bacteriophage was a model system that was far more epistemologically open and, for this reason, in a sense more productive than the virulent phage studied by the US phage group.     

Transduction of plasmid antibiotic resistance determinants with pseudo-T-even bacteriophages

Transduction of antibiotic resistance determinants of the plasmid pBR322 with pseudoT-even bacteriophages RB42, RB43, and RB49 was studied. It is established that antibiotic resistance determinants of plasmid pBR322 from Escherichia coli recA(+)- and recA(-)-donor strains do not differ significantly in respect to the efficiency of transduction. Amber mutants RB43-21, RB43-33, and a double amber mutant RB43am21am33 were obtained. These mutants facilitated transduction experiments in some cases. Transduction of antibiotic resistance markers of the vector plasmid pBR325 and recombinant plasmid pVT123, containing a DNA fragment with hoc segE uvsW genes of phage T4, was studied. The frequency of appearance of transductants resistant to pseudoT-even bacteriophages used in transduction was determined, and the sensitivity of resistant transductants to 32 RB bacteriophages and also to phages lambda, T2, T4, T5, T6, T7, and BF23 was estimated. The efficiency of plating pseudoT-even bacteriophages RB42 and RB43 on strain E. coli 802 himA hip carrying mutations in genes that encode subunits of the Integration Host Factor (IHF) was shown to be higher than on isogenic strain E. coli 802. The growth of pseudoT-even bacteriophages limited in vivo by modification-restriction systems of chromosomal (EcoKI, EcoBI), phage (EcoP1I), and plasmid (EcoRI, EcoR124I, and EcoR124II) localization was analyzed. It was shown that these phages were only slightly restricted by the type I modification-restriction systems EcoBI, EcoR124I, and EcoR124II. Phage RB42 was restricted by systems EcoKI, EcoP1I, and EcoRI; phage RB43, by systems EcoKI and EcoRI; and phage RB49, by the EcoRI modification-restriction system.     

A rapid method for identifying and quantifying soft rot erwinias directly from plant material based on their temperature tolerances and sensitivity to erythromycin

A method is described for identifying and quantifying three soft rot erwinias directly from plant tissue and from other sources that is particularly useful in epidemiological studies. Colonies of these bacteria form characteristic deep cavities on selective-diagnostic crystal violet pectate (CVP) medium. Bacteria from individual presumptive erwinia colonies on CVP plates spot inoculated on plates of CVP medium with or without erythromycin (35 μg/ml) added and incubated at 27, 33°5 and 37°C can be identified according to the pattern of cavity formation. Erwinia carotovora pv. atroseptica forms the characteristic cavities only at 27°C and E. carotovora pv. carotovora at 27 and 33.5°C but not at 37°C on CVP with or without erythromycin. Erwinia chrysanthemi forms cavities at all temperatures and can also be identified by failure to grow at 27°C on CVP with erythromycin. Similarly, erwinias in mixed populations can be quantified by dilution plating on CVP with or without erythromycin and incubating at the different temperatures. Using this method, ca 80% of 183 erwinia strains in a culture collection were correctly identified, the precision increasing to over 95% when recently isolated erwinia strains were examined.     

Phage-stable mutants of Pseudomonas putida: new types of stability

More than 170 phage-resistant mutants (PRM) of the first order of Pseudomonas putida strain PpG1 were obtained using newly isolated and previously described bacteriophages specific for this strain. According to the results of analysis of resistance of the mutants to each of 31 phages of PpG1 strain and 8 phages of the PpN strain, the PRM strains were distributed into 20 groups. In most cases, the reason for resistance is loss of absorption capacity of bacteria. However, no direct relation between the level of absorption and efficiency of phage plating was detected. It was shown that some of the PRM of P. putida PpG1 strains acquired the ability to maintain the growth of phages specific for the other P. putida strain, PpN. Frequencies of isolating mutants of various resistance types depend on the concrete phage used. In accordance with their absorption specificity, all phages were distributed into 23 groups, and a tridimensional formal scheme of receptor sites for these phages on the PpG1 strain was drawn. In the process of selection of the PpG1 clones resistant to non-lysogenizing mutant of temperate PP71 phage, a variant of this strain manifesting the phenomenon of "auto-plaquing" was found. These results support the mutational origin of this phenomenon in some cases.     

Lysogeny in Lactobacillus delbrueckii strains and characterization of two new temperate prolate-headed bacteriophages

Aims: Frequency of lysogeny in Lactobacillus delbrueckii strains (from commercial and natural starters) and preliminary characterization of temperate bacteriophages isolated from them. Methods and Results: Induction of strains (a total of 16) was made using mitomycin C (MC) (0·5 μg ml⁻¹). For 37% of the MC-treated supernatants, it was possible to detect phage particles or presence of killing activity, but only two active bacteriophages were isolated. The two temperate phages isolated were prolate-headed phages which belonged to group c of Lact. delbrueckii bacteriophages classification. Different DNA restriction patterns were obtained for each phage, while the structural protein profiles and packaging sites were identical. Distinctive one-step growth curves were exhibited by each phage. An influence of calcium ions was observed for their lysis in broth but not on the adsorption levels. Conclusions: Our study showed that lysogeny is also present in Lact. delbrueckii strains, including commercial strains. Significance and Impact of the Study: Commercial strains could be lysogenic and this fact has a great practical importance since they could contribute to the dissemination of active-phage particles in industrial environments.     

Isolation and comparative study of a group of temperate bacteriophages of rhizospheric pseudomonads Pseudomonas putida

We have isolated several new temperate bacteriophages for rhizosphere pseudomonads Pseudomonas putida. Examination of these phages, along with two previously isolated temperate phages PP56 and PP71 of P. putida PpG1 (biovar A), allowed us to classify them into four species on the basis of DNA cross-homology; relative genomic size; and, to a certain extent, the morphology of phage particles. Two of these species are represented by nonidentical variants. No transposable phages were found among these two new species. Three phage species cause various-types of lysogenic conversion manifested in growth suppression of other phage species. This seems to account for the fact that the temperate phage of rhizosphere pseudomonads are seldom encountered. The new phages described can be used for selection of phage-resistant bacterial forms exhibiting antifungal activity that are commercially produced and used for treatment of seeds of cultivated plants.     

Structure of Erwinia carotovora temperate bacteriophage 59 and its DNA.

The temperate phage 59 from Erwinia carotovora and its DNA were studied. The phage particles have an icosahedral head and a long noncontractile tail with a base plate. The virus DNA makes up 50% of the total virus and exists as a linear molecule (molecular weight, 2.6 X 10(7)). A model of virus structural organization is presented.     

Properties of Rhizobium trifolii isolates surviving exposure to specific bacteriophage

Six strains of Rhizobium trifolii were exposed to specific bacteriophages and the properties of 10 surviving clones of each studied. Two temperate bacteriophages produced clones which were lysogenic but showed no changes in colony form, symbiotic properties, or somatic antigens. Of forty clones selected by exposure to four other bacteriophages, none were lysogenic although there was some indication of unusually long association of phage with bacteria in infected cultures. Seventeen of these clones were changed in symbiotic properties, 15 in colony morphology, and 13 in somatic cross-reaction with the parent. Unexpectedly, despite stringent selection conditions, 28 were still either partially or completely susceptible to the selecting phage.     

Restriction map of permuted DNA of Erwinia carotovora temperate bacteriophage 59

The cyclic permutation and terminal redundancy were found in the genomes of Erwinia carotovora temperate bacteriophage 59 by electron microscopic studies. The headful mechanism for bacteriophage DNA cleavage and packaging during the phage morphogenesis was confirmed by the restriction analysis technique. Restriction map of the bacteriophage 59 DNA was constructed for restriction endonucleases BamHI, Bg1II, Eco31, Sa1I, SmaI, EcoRI.     

Bacteriophage Resistance Plasmid pTR2030 Inhibits Lytic Infection of r(1)t Temperate Bacteriophage but Not Induction of r(1)t Prophage in Streptococcus cremoris R1

The effects of pTR2030 on the replication of four small isometric bacteriophages were examined in Streptococcus cremoris R1. Three lytic phages (652, 720, and 751), which were isolated independently over a 29-year period, were unable to form plaques on a pTR2030 transconjugant of S. cremoris R1. The fourth phage evaluated, phage r(1)t, was a temperate phage induced from S. cremoris R1 by treatment with mitomycin C. A prophage-cured derivative of S. cremoris R1, designated R1Cs, was isolated and served as a lytic indicator for phage r(1)t. Strain R1Cs and a derivative of this strain that was relysogenized with r(1)t, designated R1Cs(r(1)t), were used as conjugal recipients for transfer of the phage resistance plasmid pTR2030. pTR2030 transconjugants of strains R1Cs and R1Cs(r(1)t) were evaluated for sensitivity to r(1)t phage and induction of r(1)t prophage, respectively. The temperate phage r(1)t adsorbed eficiently but did not form plaques on the prophage-cured, pTR2030 transconjugant strain T-R1Cs. However, in the r(1)t lysogen [T-R1Cs(r(1)t)], pTR2030 did not inhibit prophage induction with mitomycin C, cell lysis, or production of infective r(1)t phage particles. The data demonstrated that pTR2030-induced resistance inhibited lytic infection by r(1)t phage from without but did not retard lytic development after prophage induction within the cell. It was suggested that pTR2030-encoded phage resistance to small isometric phages may, therefore, act at the cell surface or membrane to prevent phage DNA passage into the host cell or inhibit early events required for lytic replication of externally infecting phage.     

Application of amplified fragment length polymorphism fingerprinting for taxonomy and identification of the soft rot bacteria Erwinia carotovora and Erwinia chrysanthemi

The soft rot bacteria Erwinia carotovora and Erwinia chrysanthemi are important pathogens of potato and other crops. However, the taxonomy of these pathogens, particularly at subspecies level, is unclear. An investigation using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) fingerprinting was undertaken to determine the taxonomic relationships within this group based on their genetic relatedness. Following cluster analysis on the similarity matrices derived from the AFLP gels, four clusters (clusters 1 to 4) resulted. Cluster 1 contained Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora (subclusters 1a and 1b) and Erwinia carotovora subsp. odorifera (subcluster 1c) strains, while cluster 2 contained Erwinia carotovora subsp. atroseptica (subcluster 2a) and Erwinia carotovora subsp. betavasculorum (subcluster 2b) strains. Clusters 3 and 4 contained Erwinia carotovora subsp. wasabiae and E. chrysanthemi strains, respectively. While E. carotovora subsp. carotovora and E. chrysanthemi showed a high level of molecular diversity (23 to 38% mean similarity), E. carotovora subsp. odorifera, E. carotovora subsp. betavasculorum, E. carotovora subsp. atroseptica, and E. carotovora subsp. wasabiae showed considerably less (56 to 76% mean similarity), which may reflect their limited geographical distributions and/or host ranges. The species- and subspecies-specific banding profiles generated from the AFLPs allowed rapid identification of unknown isolates and the potential for future development of diagnostics. AFLP fingerprinting was also found to be more differentiating than other techniques for typing the soft rot erwinias and was applicable to all strain types, including different serogroups.     

Transduction in Bacillus stearothermophilus.

Temperate and virulent bacteriophages isolated from soil were shown to carry out generalized transduction of Bacillus stearothermophilus NUB36. A transducing frequency of 1 X 10(-5) to 7 X 10(-4) was obtained for temperate phages TP-42 and TP-56. The transducing frequency for virulent phage TP-68 was two to three orders of magnitude lower. Cotransfer analysis with the three phages showed that hom-1 is linked to thr-1 and that gly-1 is linked to his-1.     

Further biological and molecular characterization of actinophage VWB

The development cycle of the temperate actinophage VWB was investigated. Adsorption of most phage particles occurred within 30 min and the adsorption constant was 0.6 x 10(-8) ml min-1. The latent and rise periods were 140 and 100 min, respectively, and the burst size was estimated to be 130-250 p.f.u. Although phage VWB could infect only Streptomyces venezuelae ETH 14630 (ATCC 40755), of six different S. venezuelae strains tested, phage DNA could be introduced by transfection into most non-infectible strains. Upon transfection, phage DNA was propagated in these non-infectible strains and phage particles were released. In addition, the transfected strains could be lysogenized. By comparison of restriction fragments of VWB DNA, either free or integrated in the chromosomal DNA of the S. venezuelae ETH 14630 lysogen, the attachment site was localized. PAGE of the phage proteins revealed at least 17 different proteins with three major bands estimated as 16.5, 27.2 and 43 kDa in size. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of these supposed major head and tail proteins was determined. The corresponding DNA sequences on the phage genome were localized using oligonucleotides synthesized on the basis of the N-terminal amino acid sequences. The genes coding for the major structural proteins were shown to be clustered, as has been observed for other bacteriophages.     

Ambivalent bacteriophages of different species active on Escherichia coli K12 and Salmonella sps. strains

A study was made of several bacteriophages (including phages U2 and LB related to T-even phages of Escherichia coli) that grow both on E. coli K12 and on some Salmonella strains. Such phages were termed ambivalent. T-even ambivalent phages (U2 and LB) are rare and have a limited number of hosts among Salmonella strains. U2 and LB are similar to canonical E. coli-specific T-even phages in morphological type and size of the phage particle and in reaction with specific anti-T4 serum. Phages U2 and LB have identical sets of structural proteins, some of which are similar in size to structural proteins of phages T2 and T4. DNA restriction patterns of phages U2 and LB differ from each other and from those of T2 and T4. Still, DNAs of all four phages have considerable homology. Unexpectedly, phages U2 and LB grown on Salmonella bungori were unstable during centrifugation in a CsCl gradient. Ambivalent bacteriophages were found in species other than T-even phages and were similar in morphotype to lambdoid and other E. coli phages. One of the ambivalent phages was highly similar to well-known Felix01, which is specific for Salmonella. Ambivalent phages can be used to develop a new set for phage typing in Salmonella. An obvious advantage is that ambivalent phages can be reproduced in the E. coli K12 laboratory strain, which does not produce active temperate phages. Consequently, the resulting typing phage preparation is devoid of an admixture of temperate phages, which are common in Salmonella. The presence of temperate phages in phage-typing preparations may cause false-positive results in identifying specific Salmonella strains isolated from the environment or salmonellosis patients. Ambivalent phages are potentially useful for phage therapy and prevention of salmonellosis in humans and animals.     

Diversity of phage integrases in Enterobacteriaceae: development of markers for environmental analysis of temperate phages

Viruses are the most abundant biological entities in aquatic systems. Temperate bacteriophages have enormous influences on microbial diversity, genetic exchange and bacterial population dynamics. However, development of molecular tools for their detection in the environment has been problematic. The integrase gene is used here as a molecular marker to analyse the diversity of temperate bacteriophages in a population of freshwater bacteria. Interrogation of the GenBank database revealed 32 non-cryptic enteric phage integrase sequences, leading to the development of a suite of 11 degenerate primer sets specific to the extant sequences elucidated. Application of these primer sets to enterobacterial isolates recovered from a freshwater pond and the temperate phages induced from them revealed a number of diverse integrase genes, including novel integrase-like sequences not represented in the databases. This highlights the potential of utilizing the integrase gene family as a marker for phage diversity.