The electrode adsorption method for determination of enzyme activity: a study of substrate requirements

The electrode adsorption method for the determination of enzyme activity requires substrates that, besides having good kinetics constants for the enzyme, also show good adsorption/desorption kinetics to the electrode surface and adsorb in such a way that they change the double-layer capacitance of the electrode. A series of peptide substrates containing one to three aromatic groups has been synthesized. Our results show that the aromatic groups are of crucial importance for the capacitance change caused by the adsorbing/desorbing substrate. Thus, the tripeptide substrate, Bz-Phe(NO2)-Val-Arg-pNA, with three aromatic groups is superior to the other synthesized substrates containing only one or two aromatic groups. Our desorption experiments show that several factors determine the rate of capacitance increase observed when thrombin is added to a substrate solution in equilibrium with a substrate-covered electrode. The kinetic constants of the substrate determine how the substrate concentration in the solution decreases and, consequently, determine the spontaneous desorption measured as capacitance increase. Thrombin does not seem to split adsorbed substrate molecules but it adsorbs to the substrate-covered surface and in that way causes a capacitance decrease counteracting the change caused by desorption of substrate.     

A new approach to the construction of potentiometric immunosensors.

An electrochemical immunosensor based on a new detection principle was developed. Laccase, which is able to catalyse the electroreduction of oxygen via the direct (mediatorless) mechanism was used as an enzyme label. The new detection method does not require the presence of an electrochemically active mediator, and the reaction substrates are atmospheric oxygen and electrons, the latter being taken by the active site of the enzyme label directly from the electrode. The formation of the complex between laccase-labelled antibody and antigen on the electrode surface resulted in a considerable (more than 300 mV) shift of the electrode potential. The rate of the increase of the electrode potential was inversely proportional to the concentration of the free antigen in the sample. The non-specific adsorption of conjugate and other proteins on the electrode could be eliminated by using a polyethylenimine-based polymer on the electrode surface. Insulin was used as a model analyte. The sensitivity limit for this antigen was approximately 3 micrograms ml-1.     

Study of xanthine oxidase immobilized electrode based on modified graphite

Xanthine oxidase (E. C. 1.2.3.2) was immobilized by adsorption on electrochemically modified graphite plate to obtain an enzyme electrode. The current of the enzyme electrode in substrate (xanthine) solutions was found to be a result of the electrooxidation of H2O2 generated in the enzyme layer. The linearity of the amperometric signal was up to a substrate concentration of 65 microM at 0.6 V (vs. Ag/AgCl). The response time was 2 minutes. The enzyme electrode preserves 80% of its initial activity after a three-week storage in air at room temperature.     

Kinetic analysis of enzymatic hydrolysis of crystalline cellulose by cellobiohydrolase using an amperometric biosensor

An amperometric biosensor for the detection of cellobiose has been introduced to study the kinetics of enzymatic hydrolysis of crystalline cellulose by cellobiohydrolase. By use of a sensor in which pyrroloquinoline quinone-dependent glucose dehydrogenase was immobilized on the surface of electrode, direct and continuous observation of the hydrolysis can be achieved even in a thick cellulose suspension. The steady-state rate of the hydrolysis increased with increasing concentrations of the enzyme to approach a saturation value and was proportional to the amount of the substrate. The experimental results can be explained well by the rate equations derived from a three-step mechanism consisting of the adsorption of the free enzyme onto the surface of the substrate, the reaction of the adsorbed enzyme with the substrate, and the liberation of the product. The catalytic constant of the adsorbed enzyme was determined to be 0.044+/-0.011s(-1).     

Versatile method of cholinesterase immobilisation via affinity bonds using Concanavalin A applied to the construction of a screen-printed biosensor

Development of new and more reliable methods to immobilise biomolecules has emerged rapidly due to a continuous need for more stable, sensitive and reliable biosensors. This paper reports a new method of acetylcholine-esterase (AChE) immobilisation based on the high affinity interaction between the glycoproteic enzyme and Concanavalin A (Con A). In order to establish the nature of the link formed between the glycoenzyme, lectin and support, three different configurations are presented. The optimum immobilisation procedure was further used for biosensor manufacturing. The non-specific adsorption is around 3% and the chemical cross-linking of the proteins is avoided. The optimised method allows loading of the working electrode surface with different amounts of enzyme ranging from 0.3 to 3.3 mIU with a good operational stability. The sensor showed a linear response range to acetylthiocholine substrate between 10 and 110 micromol l(-1) with a sensitivity of 3.6 mA l mol(-1). The applicability of the method to the detection of organophosphorus insecticides resulted in a detection limit of 10(-8) mol l(-1) for chlorpyriphos.     

Direct electron transfer catalysed by enzymes: application for biosensor development

The ability to catalyse an electrode reaction via direct (mediatorless) electron transfer has been demonstrated for a number of redox enzymes. In the case of mediatorless electron transfer, the electron is transferred directly from the electrode to the substrate molecule via the active site of the enzyme, or vice versa. The electron itself is the second substrate for the reaction. An important point characterizing bioelectrocatalysis is the catalytic removal of the reaction over-voltage. Therefore the enzyme attached to the electrode is able to catalyse electrode reaction and forms a 'molecular transducer'. The substrate can be detected by potentiometric measurement of the removal of reaction over-voltage. The enzyme laccase is able to catalyse the reaction of oxygen electroreduction. Therefore a laccase molecular layer attached to the electrode surface forms an oxygen transducer. The formation of the layer results in a change of the electrocatalytic feature of the electrode. Laccase label coupled with either ligand or receptor allows the detection of ligand-receptor complex formation/dissociation on the electrode surface. The detection is virtually reagentless. The substrates for the reaction are molecular oxygen and the electron itself. Numerous reagentless immunosensors of different formats (competitive, displacement and sandwich) have been developed, as well as the reagentless detection system for immunofiltration/immunochromatography.     

Extending the detection limit of solid-phase electrochemical enzyme immunoassay to the attomole level

Electrochemical enzyme immunoassay methodology has been developed to take advantage of the selectivity of antibody reactions, the amplification feature of an enzyme-based assay, and the ease with which small amounts of the enzyme-generated product can be detected electrochemically. A heterogeneous sandwich enzyme immunoassay was used in this work as the model assay. In this type of assay, the antigen is sandwiched between the enzyme conjugate and a primary antibody that is adsorbed to the solid phase. Alkaline phosphatase is a suitable enzyme for electrochemical assays since it catalyzes the conversion of electroinactive phenyl phosphate to electroactive phenol. The product, phenol, is then quantitated by liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection in a thin-layer flow cell with a carbon paste electrode at 0.895 V vs Ag/AgCl. The current produced by the oxidation of phenol is directly proportional to the analyte (antigen) concentration. The problem associated with these types of solid-phase immunoassays is that the adsorption of the primary antibody is desired while the adsorption of other assay proteins is not. The detection limits are generally defined by the ability to control this nonspecific adsorption. The detection limit of a previous electrochemical assay for rabbit IgG was 100 pg/ml and was limited by a large background current observed in the absence of antigen. In the present study, each step of the assay was examined in order to determine the sources of this background current, and it was found that the major contribution was from the nonspecific adsorption of the enzyme conjugate. Using combinations of Tween 20 and bovine serum albumin as blocking agents, the level of nonspecific adsorption was reduced by 96%.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

An amperometric xanthine oxidase enzyme electrode based on hydrogen peroxide electroreduction

A xanthine oxidase enzyme electrode (xanthine oxidase immobilized on electrochemically modified graphite and conveniently coated with gelatine electrode working surface) for quantitative analysis of xanthine is proposed. The detection of thus developed electrochemical system is based on the electroreduction of hydrogen peroxide generated in enzyme layer and offered L-ascorbic and uric acid reducing interference effect on the substrate determination. At a working potential -50 mV (vs. Ag/AgCl) the detection limit of 4.5 microM and the linearity of the amperometric signal up to substrate concentration of about 40 microM were found. At that working potential, the electrode is practically inert towards L-ascorbic- and uric acid present. The response time did not exceed 2 min.     

A rapid competitive binding nonseparation electrochemical enzyme immunoassay (NEEIA) test strip for microcystin-LR (MCLR) determination

A competitive binding nonseparation electrochemical enzyme immunoassay (NEEIA) is described for the determination of microcystin-LR (MCLR) using a double-sided microporous gold electrode in cartridge-type cells. A gold film sputtered on one side of porous nylon membrane constitutes a working electrode, while another gold film formed on the opposite side serves as a pseudo reference electrode. After immobilizing MCLR antibody on working electrode by physical adsorption, the double-sided electrode was placed simply in a diffusion U-type or within a dry strip-type cell with a conjugate pad pre-loaded with a glucose oxidase labeled MCLR (GOx-MCLR) on working electrode side. Assays were performed in two steps: an MCLR-containing sample mixed with a known amount of GOx-MCLR conjugate either in buffer solution or in pre-loaded dry pad was incubated for an appropriate period (about 10 min) to induce competitive reaction with an immobilized anti-MCLR antibody on working electrode, and a fixed concentration of glucose solution (substrate) was then added to the backside of the working electrode. Due to the competitive nature of the assay, enzymatically generated product, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), was detected at the working gold electrode (at +800 mV versus Au) by oxidation, and the magnitude of amperometric current was inversely proportional to the concentration of MCLR in the sample. The response time after substrate addition was about 30s. Mean recovery of MCLR added to tap water was 93.5%, with a coefficient of variation (CV) of 6.6%. The proposed competitive NEEIA system is in general comparable to existing heterogeneous enzyme immunoassays with a similar detection limit (100 pg/mL MCLR), and suitable for developing a disposable type biosensor for on-site monitoring of environment.     

Amperometric glucose biosensor based on adsorption of glucose oxidase at platinum nanoparticle-modified carbon nanotube electrode

A new amperometric biosensor, based on adsorption of glucose oxidase (GOD) at the platinum nanoparticle-modified carbon nanotube (CNT) electrode, is presented in this article. CNTs were grown directly on the graphite substrate. The resulting GOD/Pt/CNT electrode was covered by a thin layer of Nafion to avoid the loss of GOD in determination and to improve the anti-interferent ability. The morphologies and electrochemical performance of the CNT, Pt/CNT, and Nafion/GOD/Pt/CNT electrodes have been investigated by scanning electron microscopy, cyclic voltammetry, and amperometric methods. The excellent electrocatalytic activity and special three-dimensional structure of the enzyme electrode result in good characteristics such as a large determination range (0.1-13.5mM), a short response time (within 5s), a large current density (1.176 mA cm(-2)), and high sensitivity (91mA M(-1)cm(-2)) and stability (73.5% remains after 22 days). In addition, effects of pH value, applied potential, electrode construction, and electroactive interferents on the amperometric response of the sensor were investigated and discussed. The reproducibility and applicability to whole blood analysis of the enzyme electrode were also evaluated.     

Electrochemical model of enzyme oxidation-reduction reactions with a limiting stage of electron transfer]

Enzymatic redox reaction is modelled by a set of microgalvanic elements shorted out. It allows to use as the rate constant of enzymatic reaction the rate constant deduced for the electrode reaction with a limiting stage of electron transfer. The basic problem is to determine the nonequilibrium potential by the phase border enzyme/solution. A phenomenological model for determining the nonequilibrium adsorption dependent potential is suggested. The rate constant is deduced which depends on the adsorption of one of the substrates (activation or inhibition). This dependence is the same for the whole set of adsorption isoterms. A class of well known relationships of the initial rate of enzymatic reaction and the substrate concentration is obtained for a simple case of physical adsorption.     

Oxygen-stabilized enzyme electrode for d-glucose analysis in fermentation broths

A new principle for the construction of oxygen-dependent enzyme electrodes is presented. The enzyme electrode is based on a galvanic oxygen electrode which is furnished with an electrolysis anode covered by immobilized enzyme and placed close to the oxygen-sensing surface. An ordinary oxygen electrode is used as a reference electrode. The enzymatic consumption of oxygen in the enzyme electrode generates a potential difference between the electrodes which is utilized to control electrolytic generation of oxygen from water in such a way that zero differential potential is maintained. Thus, the enzyme electrode operates under ambient oxygen tension and does not suffer from oxygen limitation. The electrolytic current in this system gives a measure of the concentration of substrate surrounding the enzyme electrode. The electrode has been applied for continuous d-glucose analysis in situ during batch cultures of Candida utilis.     

Amperometric ATP biosensor based on polymer entrapped enzymes

A dual enzyme electrode for the detection of adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) at physiologically relevant pH levels was developed by co-immobilization of the enzymes glucose oxidase (GOD) and hexokinase (HEX) using pH-shift induced deposition of enzyme containing polymer films. Application of a simple electrochemical procedure for the co-immobilization of the enzymes at electrode surfaces exhibits a major improvement of sensitivity, response time, reproducibility, and ease of fabrication of ATP biosensors. Competition between glucose oxidase and hexokinase for the substrate glucose involving ATP as a co-substrate allows the determination of ATP concentrations. Notable control on the immobilization process enables fabrication of micro biosensors with a diameter of 25 microm. The presented concept provides the technological basis for a new generation of fast responding, sensitive, and robust biosensors for the detection of ATP at physiological pH values with a detection limit of 10 nmol l(-1).     

Enzyme-substrate interaction in lipid monolayers. I. Experimental conditions and fundamental kinetics.

A systematic study has shown the importance of the different factors which are concerned with the action of lipase on a substrate (1,3-didecanoylglycerol). These consist of a) the process of adsorption of lipase to the surface, b) the necessity of limited stirring to reach equilibrium, and c) the persistence during the reaction process of the enzyme molecules adsorbed on the monolayer. On the basis of this preliminary investigation, a technique was established to analyze the mechanism of lipase action with defined quantities of enzyme and lipid segregated in the monolayer. Thus, the process of the reaction itself is separated from the adsorption process, and it is demonstrated that the quantity of substrate hydrolyzed per minute depends only on the quantity of initially adsorbed lipase and not on the quantity of substrate or on the surface concentration of the enzyme. An appropriate new definition of the rate is consequently adopted.     

Evaluation of BBL CHROMagar Listeria agar for the isolation and identification of Listeria monocytogenes from food and environmental samples

The performance of BBL CHROMagar Listeria chromogenic agar for the detection of Listeria monocytogenes was evaluated for its ability to isolate and identify L. monocytogenes from food and environmental samples. The medium was compared to non-chromogenic selective agars commonly used for Listeria isolation: Oxford, Modified Oxford, and PALCAM. BBL CHROMagar Listeria had a sensitivity of 99% and 100% for the detection of L. monocytogenes from 200 natural and artificially inoculated food samples, respectively, with a colony confirmation rate of 100%. The sensitivity of non-chromogenic selective media for the detection of L. monocytogenes from these same samples was 97-99% with colony confirmation rates of 65-67.5%. From 93 environmental samples, BBL CHROMagar Listeria agar results correlated 100% with a Listeria spp. visual immunoassay (TECRA) performed on these same samples and the USDA-FSIS standard culture method for the isolation of L. monocytogenes. From environmental samples, the L. monocytogenes confirmation rate was 100% for BBL CHROMagar Listeria as compared to 50% for conventional agars tested. On BBL CHROMagar Listeria, L. monocytogenes forms a translucent white precipitation zone (halo) surrounding blue-pigmented colonies of 2-3 mm in diameter, with an entire border. BBL CHROMagar Listeria offers a high degree of specificity for the confirmation of suspect L. monocytogenes colonies, whereas non-chromogenic selective agars evaluated were not differential for L. monocytogenes from other Listeria species.     

Detection of human neutrophil elastase with peptide-bound cross-linked ethoxylate acrylate resin analogs.

An assessment of elastase-substrate kinetics and adsorption at the solid-liquid interface of peptide-bound resin was made in an approach to the solid-phase detection of human neutrophil elastase (HNE), which is found in high concentration in chronic wound fluid. N-succinyl-alanine-alanine-proline-valine-p-nitroanilide (suc-Ala-Ala-Pro-Val-pNA), a chromogenic HNE substrate, was attached to glycine-cross-linked ethoxylate acrylate resins (Gly-CLEAR) by a carbodiimide reaction. To assess the enzyme-substrate reaction in a two-phase system, the kinetic profile of resin-bound peptide substrate hydrolysis by HNE was obtained. A glycine and di-glycine spacer was placed between the resin polymer and substrate to assess the steric and spatial requirements of resin to substrate with enzyme hydrolysis. The enzymatic activities of suc-Ala-Ala-Pro-Val-pNA and suc-Ala-Ala-Pro-Ala-pNA on the solid-phase resin were compared with similar analogs in solution. An increase in visible wavelength absorbance was observed with increasing amounts of substrate-resin and enzyme concentration. Enzyme hydrolysis of the resin-bound substrate was also demonstrated on a polypropylene surface, which was employed for visible absorbance of released chromophore. A soluble active substrate analog was released from the resin through saponification of the ethoxylate ester linkages in the resin polymer. The resin-released conjugate of the HNE substrate demonstrated an increased dose response with increasing enzyme concentration. The synthesis and assay of elastase substrates bound to CLEAR resin gives an understanding of substrate-elastase adsorption and activity at the resin's solid-liquid interface for HNE detection with a solid-phase peptide.     

The Sonogel-Carbon materials as basis for development of enzyme biosensors for phenols and polyphenols monitoring: a detailed comparative study of three immobilization matrixes

Three amperometric biosensors based on immobilization of tyrosinase on a new Sonogel-Carbon electrode for detection of phenols and polyphenols are described. The electrode was prepared using high energy ultrasounds (HEU) directly applied to the precursors. The first biosensor was obtained by simple adsorption of the enzyme on the Sonogel-Carbon electrode. The second and the third ones, presenting sandwich configurations, were initially prepared by adsorption of the enzyme and then modification by mean of polymeric membrane such as polyethylene glycol for the second one, and the ion-exchanger Nafion in the case of the third biosensor. The optimal enzyme loading and polymer concentration, in the second layer, were found to be 285 U and 0.5%, respectively. All biosensors showed optimal activity at the following conditions: pH 7, -200 mV, and 0.02 mol l(-1) phosphate buffer. The response of the biosensors toward five simple phenols derivatives and two polyphenols were investigated. It was found that the three developed tyrosinase Sonogel-Carbon based biosensors are in satisfactory competitiveness for phenolic compounds determination with other tyrosinase based biosensors reported in the literature. The detection limit, sensitivity, and the apparent Michaelis-Menten constant K(m)(app) for the Nafion modified biosensor were, respectively, 0.064, 0.096, and 0.03 micromol, 82.5, 63.4, and 194 nA micromol(-1)l(-1), and 67.1, 54.6, and 12.1 micromol l(-1) for catechol, phenol, and 4-chloro-3-methylphenol. Hill coefficient values (around 1 for all cases), demonstrated that the immobilization method does not affect the nature of the enzyme and confirms the biocompatibility of the Sonogel-Carbon with the bioprobe. An exploratory application to real samples such as beers, river waters and tannery wastewaters showed the ability of the developed Nafion/tyrosinase/Sonogel-Carbon biosensor to retain its stable and reproducible response.     

基于“酶-邻氨基苯酚”体系的电化学免疫传感方法及其应用

本研究建立了一种新的电化学免疫传感方法,并将其应用于实际样本的检测。采用辣根过氧化物酶(horseradish peroxidase,HRP)的新型底物邻-氨基苯酚(O-aminophenol,O-AP)构建了基于"酶-邻氨基苯酚"体系的电化学免疫传感方法,并用于血吸虫抗体检测。邻-氨基苯酚在辣根过氧化物酶催化双氧水(H2O2)时被氧化,生成的产物3-氨基吩噁嗪能通过电化学方法检测。实验结果验证了基于"酶-邻氨基苯酚"的新型蛋白检测体系用于检测人血清中血吸虫抗体的可操作性,实现了实际样本的检测。并且,采用方波伏安法作为最终检测方法,具有更高的灵敏性。     

Toward an aggregated understanding of enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose: noncomplexed cellulase systems

Information pertaining to enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose by noncomplexed cellulase enzyme systems is reviewed with a particular emphasis on development of aggregated understanding incorporating substrate features in addition to concentration and multiple cellulase components. Topics considered include properties of cellulose, adsorption, cellulose hydrolysis, and quantitative models. A classification scheme is proposed for quantitative models for enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose based on the number of solubilizing activities and substrate state variables included. We suggest that it is timely to revisit and reinvigorate functional modeling of cellulose hydrolysis, and that this would be highly beneficial if not necessary in order to bring to bear the large volume of information available on cellulase components on the primary applications that motivate interest in the subject.     

An amperometric immunosensor based on an electrochemically pretreated carbon-paraffin electrode for complement III (C3) assay

An electrochemical immunosensor based on the adsorption of anti-complement III antibody onto an electrochemical pretreated carbon-paraffin electrode has been proposed for the detection of complement III (C(3)). The competitive immunoassay format was adopted with horseradish peroxide-C(3) (HRP-C(3)) as a tracer, 3,3'5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) and hydrogen peroxide as the enzyme substrates. In order to measure the amount of HRP-C(3) binding onto the electrode surface, the product of the enzyme catalytic reaction was detected at 100 mV (vs. Ag/AgCl reference electrode). The system was optimized to realize a reliable determination of C(3) in the range of 0.06-10 microg/ml. It exhibits some advantages, such as simplicity of fabrication, rapidity of measurement, and satisfactory sensitivity and reproducibility.