Plant Growth Promoting Characterization of Indigenous Azotobacteria Isolated from Soils in Iran

It has been well known that the bacteria of the genus Azotobacter, in addition to the beneficial N₂-fixing activity, are able to improve plant growth by a number of direct and indirect mechanisms. To identify this potential in indigenous azotobacteria, the efficiency of 17 isolates of Azotobacter from the rhizosphere of wheat and barley plants cultivated in salt- and/or drought-affected soils in Iran were evaluated for their ability to dissolve inorganic and organic phosphates, siderophore secretion, indole acetic acid (IAA) production; and protease, chitinase, and ACC deaminase (ACCD) activities. First, they were biochemically characterized and one isolate (strain) was identified by 16S rDNA sequencing. Eight isolates were designated as Azotobacter vinelandii and the remaining isolates were identified as A. chroococcum. All isolates hydrolyzed the organic and inorganic phosphate compounds and effectively produced IAA. Fifteen isolates produced siderophore, but only one isolate showed protease activity which is being reported for the first time in relation to Azotobacter. None of the 17 isolates was capable of producing ACCD or chitinase. However, polymerase chain reaction amplification of the ACCD coding genes, by the use of the gene-specific primers, indicated that not all contain the ACCD gene. The standard screening methods with slight modifications, especially in the case of ACCD assay, were applied. The results showed that the use of specific screening methods, modified according to bacterial nutritional requirements, are the efficient methods for precise evaluation of the plant growth promoting rhizobacteria activity.     

The detection of <Emphasis Type="Italic">hip</Emphasis>O gene by real-time PCR in thermophilic <Emphasis Type="Italic">Campylobacter</Emphasis> spp. with very weak and negative reaction of hippurate hydrolysis

A total of 190 Campylobacter spp. isolates, of which 34 gave the result of very weak activity, and 156 gave the negative activity in the test for hippurate hydrolysis were characterized. The genomic DNA was isolated from a fresh culture of each isolate and the real-time PCR, targeting the hipO gene, was used to confirm the species distribution of Campylobacter isolates. The hipO gene was detected in 17 isolates (11%) within the total of 156 negative isolates for hippurate hydrolysis. Out of 34 isolates with very weak activity, 19 isolates (56%) were also found to be positive for hipO gene and characterized as C. jejuni. The real-time PCR assay used in this study could be employed for more accurate diagnosis of Campylobacter infections at species level after the biochemical characterization based on hippuricase activity of the isolates. This could also provide important data for the epidemiology of infections associated with these zoonotic pathogens.     

Gibberellin production and plant growth promotion by a newly isolated strain of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gliomastix murorum</Emphasis>

Endophytic fungi are known to play a vital role in the growth and development of their host plants. We isolated eleven endophytic fungi from the roots of sand-dune plant Elymus mollis and their growth-promoting ability was studied on waito-c rice and Atriplex gemelinii. We found that eight fungal isolates promoted growth of both plants. Fungal isolate EM-7-1 induced maximum growth promotion in waito-c rice (9.25 cm) and Atriplex gemelinii (3.1 cm), which was higher than wild-type Gibberella fujikuroi. Gibberellin analysis of EM-7-1 culture filtrate showed the presence of bioactive gibberellins GA₁ (0.32 ng/ml), GA₃ (5.76 ng/ml), GA₄ (0.82 ng/ml) and GA₇: (0.1 ng/ml) along with physiologically inactive GA₅ (0.59 ng/ml), GA₉ (5.38 ng/ml), GA₂₀ (0.25 ng/ml) and GA₂₄ (2.03 ng/ml). The fungal isolate EM-7-1 was identified as new strain of Gliomastix murorum (G. murorum KACC43902) with 99% sequence homology. This study reports the plant growth-promoting ability of genus Gliomastix and the presence of GA₅ in the culture filtrate of fungi for the first time. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Phosphate solubilization potential and stress tolerance of rhizobacteria from rice soil in Northern Thailand

Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are known to influence plant growth by various direct or indirect mechanisms. A total of 216 phosphate-solubilizing bacterial isolates were isolated from different rice rhizospheric soil in Northern Thailand. These isolate were screened in vitro for their plant growth-promoting activities such as solubilization of inorganic phosphate, ammonia (NH₃), catalase and cell wall-degrading enzyme activity. It was found that 100% solubilized inorganic phosphate, 77.77% produced NH₃ and most of the isolates were positive for catalase. In addition, some strains also produced cell wall-degrading enzymes such as protease (7%), chitinase (1%), cellulase (3%) and β-glucanase (3%), as evidenced by phenotypic biochemical test and quantitative assay using spectrophotometry. The isolates could exhibit more than two or three plant growth-promoting (PGP) traits, which may promote plant growth directly or indirectly or synergistically. Part of this study focused on the effect of NaCl, temperature, and pH on a specific the bacterial isolate Acinetobacter CR 1.8. Strain CR 1.8 was able to grow on up to 25% NaCl, between 25 and 55°C, and at pH 5–9. Maximum solubilization of tricalcium phosphate and aluminium phosphate was obtained at neutral pH, and 37°C. Strain CR 1.8 had protease activity but no cellulase, β-glucanase and cellulase activities.     

Cladosporium sphaerospermum as a new plant growth-promoting endophyte from the roots of Glycine max (L.) Merr.

Endophytic fungi are plant symbionts that produce a variety of beneficial metabolites for plant growth and protection against herbivory and pathogens. Fourteen fungal samples were isolated from the roots of soybean cultivar Daemangkong and screened on waito-c rice for their plant growth-promoting capacity. Twelve of the fungal isolates promoted plant growth, while two inhibited it. The fungal isolate DK-1-1 induced maximum plant growth in both waito-c rice and soybean. The plant growth promotion capacity of DK-1-1 was higher than the wild type Gibberella fujikuroi. Gibberellin (GA) analysis of culture filtrate of DK-1-1 showed the presence of higher amounts of bioactive GA₃, GA₄, and GA₇ (6.62, 2.1 and 1.26 ng/mL, respectively) along with physiologically inactive GA₅, GA₁₅, GA₁₉, and GA₂₄. Phylogenetic analysis of 18S rDNA sequence identified the fungal isolate as a new strain of Cladosporium sphaerospermum. Gibberellin production and plant growth-promoting ability of genus Cladosporium are reported for the first time in the present study. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Molecular and phenotypic characterization of potential plant growth-promoting <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudomonas</Emphasis> from rice and maize rhizospheres

In this study, Pseudomonas species were isolated from the rhizospheres of two plant hosts: rice (Oryza sativa cultivar Pathum Thani 1) and maize (Zea mays cultivar DK888). The genotypic diversity of isolates was determined on basis of amplified rDNA restriction analysis (ARDRA). This analysis showed that both plant varieties selected for two distinct populations of Pseudomonas. The actual biocontrol and plant promotion abilities of these strains was confirmed by bioassays on fungal (Verticillum sp., Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium sp.) and bacterial (Ralstonia solanacearum and Bacillus subtilis) plant pathogens, as well as indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) production and carbon source utilization. There was a significant difference between isolates from rice and maize rhizosphere in terms of biological control against R.  solanacearum and B.  subtilis. Interestingly, none of the pseudomonads isolated from maize rhizosphere showed antagonistic activity against R.  solanacearum. This study indicated that the percentage of pseudomonad isolates obtained from rice rhizosphere which showed the ability to produce fluorescent pigments was almost threefold higher than pseudomonad isolates obtained from maize rhizosphere. Furthermore, the biocontrol assay results indicated that pseudomonad isolated from rice showed a higher ability to control bacterial and fungal root pathogens than pseudomonad isolates obtained from maize. This work clearly identified a number of isolates with potential for use as plant growth-promoting and biocontrol agents on rice and maize.     

Interaction between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae and plant growth promoting fungus Phoma sp. on their root colonization and growth promotion of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.)

Interaction between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae and plant growth promoting fungus Phoma sp. was studied for its effect on their root colonization and plant growth of cucumber. Two isolates of Phoma sp. (GS8-2 and GS8-3) were tested with G. mosseae. The percent root length colonized by G. mosseae was not adversely affected by the presence of Phoma isolates. In contrast, the root colonization of both isolates GS8-2 and GS8-3 in 4-week-old plants was significantly reduced (80.7% and 84.3%, respectively) by added G. mosseae. Inoculating plants with each Phoma isolate significantly increased the shoot dry weight. However, dual inoculation of each Phoma isolate with G. mosseae had no significant effect on growth enhancement.     

Light inhibition of the conversion of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid to ethylene in leaves is mediated through carbon dioxide

The mechanism of light-inhibited ethylene production in excised rice (Oryza sativa L.) and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) leaves was examined. In segments of rice leaves light substantially inhibited the endogenous ethylene production, but when CO₂ was added into the incubation flask, the rate of endogenous ethylene production in the light increased markedly, to a level which was even higher than that produced in the dark. Carbon dioxide, however, had no appreciable effect of leaf segments incubated in the dark. The endogenous level of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), the immediate precursor of ethylene, was not significantly affected by lightdark or CO₂ treatment, indicating that dark treatment or CO₂exerted its effect by promoting the conversion of ACC to ethylene. This conclusion was supported by the observations that the rate of conversion of exogenously applied ACC to ethylene was similarly inhibited by light, and this inhibition was relieved in the presence of CO₂. Similar results were obtained with tobacco leaf discs. The concentrations of CO₂ giving half-maximal activity was about 0.06%, which was only slightly above the ambient level of 0.03%. The modulation of ACC conversion to ethylene by CO₂ or light in detached leaves of both rice and tobacco was rapid and fully reversible, indicating that CO₂ regulates the activity, but not the synthesis, of the enzyme converting ACC to ethylene. Our results indicate that light inhibition of ethylene production in detached leaves is mediated through the internal level of CO₂, which directly modulates the activity of the enzyme converting ACC to ethylene.Abbreviation ACC 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid Recipient of a Republic of China National Science Council Fellowship     

Interactions Between Plant Growth Promoting Fungi and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus Glomus Mosseae and Induction of Systemic Resistance to Anthracnose Disease in Cucumber

Cucumber plants were treated with plant growth promoting fungi (PGPF), Phoma sp. (isolates GS8-2 and GS8-3) and Penicillium simplicissimum (isolate GP17-2) with or without the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) Glomus mosseae. Induction of systemic resistance in cucumber against the anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum orbiculare was tested to evaluate the nature of the interaction between the PGPF and AMF. Root colonizing ability of each fungal species as influenced by their interaction was also evaluated. Plant roots were pre-inoculated with each PGPF isolate and/or G. mosseae for four weeks and leaves were then challenge inoculated with the pathogen C. orbiculare. Plants treated with each PGPF isolate showed considerable protection against the disease, but the treatment of G. mosseae had no significant effect on disease development. However, combined inoculation of Phoma GS8-2 or GS8-3 with G. mosseae reduced the level of disease protection induced by single inoculation of each Phoma isolate. In contrast, the high levels of protection induced by the P. simplicissimum GP17-2 were not altered by combining it with G. mosseae. Root colonization of both Phoma sp. isolates was also suppressed by the presence of the G. mosseae, but such an effect was not found on the population development of P. simplicissimum. The percent cucumber root length colonized by G. mosseae was not affected by any of the PGPF isolates tested.     

Characterization of three endophytic, indole-3-acetic acid-producing yeasts occurring in Populus trees

Three endophytic yeast, one isolated from stems of wild cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa), two from stems of hybrid poplar (P. trichocarpa × Populus deltoides), were characterized by analyzing three ribosomal genes, the small subunit (18S), internal transcribed spacer (ITS), and D1/D2 region of the large subunit (26S). Phenotypic characteristics of the yeast isolates were also obtained using a commercial yeast identification kit and used for assisting the species identification. The isolate from wild cottonwood was identified to be closest to species Rhodotorula graminis. The two isolates from hybrid poplar were identified to be species Rhodotorula mucilaginosa. In addition, the three yeast isolates were observed to be able to produce indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), a phytohormone which can promote plant growth, when incubated with l-tryptophan. To our knowledge, the yeast strains presented in this study were the first endophytic yeast strains isolated from species of Populus.     

Mating-type Distribution and Fertility Status in Magnaporthe grisea Populations from Argentina

Isolates of Magnaporthe grisea causing gray leaf spot on rice were collected in Argentina and analyzed for mating distribution and fertility. One hundred and twenty-five isolates of M. grisea were collected from rice plants between 2000 and 2003. Each isolate was tested for mating type through a polymerase chain reaction based assay. All M. grisea isolates from Argentina belonged to a single mating type, MAT1.1. The fertility status of isolates was determined using controlled crosses in vitro, pairing each isolate with GUY11 and KA9 (MAT1.2 standard hermaphroditic testers). Production of perithecia was scarce among isolates of the blast pathogen since a low percentage of them (7.2%) developed perithecia with only one of the fertile tester (KA9); all crosses failed with the other tester strain. Asci and ascospores were not observed. The presence of only one mating type and the absence of female fertile isolates indicate that sexual reproduction is rare or absent in M. grisea populations associated with rice in Argentina.     

Rice <Emphasis Type="Italic">SERK1</Emphasis> gene positively regulates somatic embryogenesis of cultured cell and host defense response against fungal infection

Here we report on the isolation and characterization of a somatic embryogenesis receptor-like kinase (OsSERK1) gene in rice (Oryza sativa). The OsSERK1 gene belongs to a small subfamily of receptor-like kinase genes in rice and shares a highly conserved gene structure and extensive sequence homology with previously reported plant SERK genes. Though it has a basal level of expression in various rice organs/tissues, as high expression level was detected in rice callus during somatic embryogenesis. Suppression of OsSERK1 expression in transgenic calli by RNA interference resulted in a significant reduction of shoot regeneration rate (from 72% to 14% in the japonica rice Zhonghua11). Overexpression of OsSERK1, however, increased the shoot regeneration rate (from 72% to 86%). Interestingly, OsSERK1 is significantly activated by the rice blast fungus, particularly during the incompatible interaction, and is associated with host cell death in Sekigushi lesion mimic mutants. This gene is also inducible by defense signaling molecules such as salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, and abscisic acid. Furthermore, constitutive overexpression of OsSERK1 in two rice cultivars led to an increase in host resistance to the blast fungus. Our data suggest that OsSERK1 may partially mediate defense signal transduction in addition to its basic role in somatic embryogenesis.     

Pathogenic and Genetic Variation among the Isolates of Rhizoctonia solani (AG 1‐IA), the Rice Sheath Blight Pathogen

Sheath blight disease of rice caused by Rhizoctonia solani is one of the most dreaded plant diseases faced by the rice farmers all over the world. None of the commercially cultivated rice varieties have sufficient level of field resistance, and the disease is presently being managed by chemical pesticides. In this study, 40 isolates of rice sheath blight pathogen, collected from diverse rice ecosystems from 12 different states of India, were characterized for their morphological, pathological and genetic variation. The isolates showed wide morphological variation in terms of size of sclerotia and abundance of sclerotia production. The virulence of each pathogen isolate was studied on four rice varieties, that is TN1, IR 64, Tetep and Swarnadhan in glasshouse, and observations were taken by measuring the relative lesion height. The relative lesion heights produced by these isolates on four different rice varieties varied widely. Genetic variation of the isolates was analysed using ISSR markers. The primers based on AG, GA, AC and CA repeats were informative and revealed polymorphism among the isolates. The polymorphism information content (PIC) of the primers ranged from 0.80 to 0.96, while the resolving power (Rp) ranged from 3.7 to 15.35. Largely, grouping of the isolates happened based on their geographical origin. One isolate from Titabar, Assam, and another from Adialabad, Telangana, were quite distinct from rest of the isolates.     

Production of zearalenone,moniliformin and trichothecenes in intact sugar beets under laboratory conditions

Five toxigenic isolates of Fusarium species were tested for the production of zearalenone, moniliformin and trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, T-2, HT-2 and neosolaniol) when grown on solid sugar beet slices in the laboratory for thirty days. The isolates were also grown on a solid rice medium for comparison. High zearalenone and trichothecene-producing isolates originally obtained from corn and corn-based feedstuff were compared with isolates obtained from sugar beets. One moniliformin-producing isolate from wheat was included in the study. With the exception of moniliformin, all toxins were produced on both substrates; however, the rice medium yielded the greater concentrations except for HT-2 which was produced on sugar beets in equal or greater concentrations. Zearalenone production on rice reached 729–1943 gmg/g whereas on sugar beet it reached 72–193 gmg/g. The moniliformin-producing isolate grew well on both substrates; however, moniliformin was produced only on the rice substrate. This study demonstrates for the first time that Fusarium species can produce both zearalenone and the trichothecenes on a sugar beet substrate.     

水稻种子内生泛菌(Pantoea spp.)系统发育多样性及其促生功能

【目的】Pantoea菌株是广泛分布在自然界中的一类功能多样的细菌。本研究对分离自水稻种子内生的Pantoea菌株进行系统发育分析及功能评价,从而确定分类地位、种类多样性、分布特征及功能特性。【方法】采用乙醇-次氯酸钠联合灭菌方法进行水稻种子的表面灭菌,进行内生细菌的分离与纯化;其次将纯化后的菌株进行16Sr RNA基因PCR扩增及序列分析,通过MEGA7软件构建系统发育树;将分离得到的菌株进行功能实验检测,如溶磷、产IAA、产铁载体、拮抗病原真菌等特性,最后检测菌株的溶血性;水稻分型采用SSR方法,并对水稻农学性状如分蘖数、株高、植株重及产量进行调查。【结果】本研究对分离自8个不同基因型水稻种子中的146株内生Pantoea菌株进行系统发育分析及功能评价,结果发现所分离到的泛菌菌株主要属于Pantoea dispersa、Pantoea agglomerans、Pantoea cypripedii以及Pantoea brenneri四个种,其中P. dispersa的菌株数量最多,分布最广,并且存在于所有的8个水稻种子样品中。对其中66株菌进行功能检测,发现86.3%和69.7%的菌株具有溶磷和产IAA能力,有7株菌具有产铁载体能力,未发现对真菌病害Fusarium moniliforme有拮抗作用的菌株,并发现3株菌具有溶血性;本实验未发现泛菌组成与水稻系统发育及农学性状存在明显的相关性。【结论】本研究首次对水稻种子中泛菌的多样性及其功能进行报道,发现不同基因型的水稻种子所含Pantoea种类及组成存在差异,种子选择性地积累了Pantoea类群,大部分菌株具有一定的促生特性。该研究结果有助于进一步探究微生物与植物的共进化、种子微生物的传播途径及作用方式。     

Isolation and characterization of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudoalteromonas ruthenica</Emphasis> (SBT033), an EPS-producing biofilm bacterium from the seawater intake point of a tropical power station

Biofilm formation in bacteria is closely linked with production of exopolysaccharides (EPS). This study examined the quantitative variations in EPS production and biofilm-forming ability among bacteria isolated from the seawater intake point of a power station located on the east coast of India. Of the 233 isolates obtained from the intake site, 71 bacterial isolates displayed different colony morphological characteristics. Thirteen isolates that produced wide and thick mucoid colonies were further tested for their ability to attach and form biofilms by microtitre plate assay and confocal microscopy. EPS production among the selected bacterial isolates ranged from 826 to 1838 μg ml⁻¹. Strain SBT033, which produced the maximum amount of EPS also displayed the maximum biofilm-forming ability among the 13 isolates. This strain was selected for further characterization using biochemical and molecular methods. The pale orange-pigmented isolate was a Gram negative, aerobic, short rod-shaped and grew well only in the presence of 2% NaCl. On the basis of phenotypic characteristics the isolate SBT033 is shown to belong to the genus Pseudoalteromonas. Analysis of 16S rRNA of the isolate revealed 99% homology with Pseudoalteromonas ruthenica.     

Azospirillum amazonense inoculation: effects on growth, yield and N2 fixation of rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Bacteria of the genus Azospirillum are considered to be plant-growth promoting bacteria (PGPR) and stimulate plant growth directly either by synthesising phyto-hormones or by promoting nutrition by the process of biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). Although this genus extensively studied, the effects of inoculation and the possible BNF contribution of the Azospirillum amazonense specie are very scarce. The aim of this study was to isolate, characterise and evaluate auxin production and nitrogenase activity of this species and to select, by inoculation of rice plants, promising isolates based on their ability to improve plant growth, yield and the BNF contribution. One hundred and ten isolates obtained from rice were characterised and grouped according to colony features. Forty-two isolates, confirmed as A. amazonense by the fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) technique, were tested for auxin production and nitrogenase activity in vitro. Subsequently plant growth promotion related to plant nutrition effect was evaluated, in vitro and in greenhouse experiments. The BNF contribution to plant growth was evaluated using the ¹⁵N isotope dilution technique. All A. amazonense strains tested produced indoles, but only 10% of them showed high production, above 1.33 μM mg protein⁻¹. The nitrogenase activity also was variable and only 9% of isolates showed high nitrogenase activity and the majority (54%) exhibited a low potential. The inoculation of selected strains in rice under gnotobiotic conditions reduced the growth of root and aerial part when compared to the control, showing the negative effects of excess of phytohormone accumulation in the medium. However, in the greenhouse experiment, inoculation of strains of A. amazonense increased grain dry matter accumulation (7 to 11.6%), the number of panicles (3 to 18.6%) and nitrogen accumulation at grain maturation (3.5 to 18.5%). BNF contributions up to 27% were observed for A. amazonense Y2 (wild type strain). The data presented here is the first report that the PGPR effect of A. amazonense for rice plants grown under greenhouse conditions is mainly due the BNF contribution as measured by ¹⁵N isotope dilution technique, in contrast to the hormonal effect observed with other Azospirillum species studied.     

Multiple antibiotic resistances of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Enterococcus</Emphasis> isolates from raw or sand-filtered sewage

Fifty antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus strains were isolated from raw sewage of a wastewater treatment plant and from the same sewage after trickling through a 25-cm sand column, which retained >99% of the initial population. All 50 Enterococcus isolates were resistant against triple sulfa and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole and none were resistant against vancomycin. Most of the isolates from raw sewage were resistant to more antibiotics than the isolates from sand column effluent. One Enterococcus isolate from raw sewage (no. 61) and one Enterococcus isolate from sand column effluent (no. 95) had ten antibiotic resistances each. Isolate no. 95 maintained its resistances in the absence of antibiotics during the whole study. It was compared with isolate no. 70, which was one of the isolates, being resistant only against the two sulfonamides. Phenotypically and biochemically, the two organisms were strains of Enterococcus faecalis. Sequence analysis of partical 16S rDNA allowed alignment of isolate no. 95 as a strain of Enterococcus faecium and of isolate no. 70 as a strain of E. faecalis. E. faecium strain no. 95 carried at least six different plasmids, whereas for E. faecalis strain no. 70, no discrete plasmid band was seen on the gels.     

Characterization of a strong CCA-treated wood degrader,unknown <Emphasis Type="Italic">Crustoderma</Emphasis> species

In this study, basidiomycete isolates that possessed a strong ability to degrade chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated wood were characterized. These fungal isolates, which were collected from CCA-treated pine log wastes, showed no recognizable morphological properties on culture media. Nucleotide sequence analysis of the large subunit rDNA of the isolates revealed that they were one species. Based on the high sequence similarity (>95%) and close phylogenetic relationship with several known species of Crustoderma, the fungal isolates characterized in this study were classified as a Crustoderma sp. In a wood degradation test, Crustoderma isolate KUC8611 produced a remarkably higher weight loss in CCA-treated Pinus radiata (68.7%), Pseudotsuga menziesii (39.7%), and Tsuga heterophylla (38.5%) wood than other evaluated basidiomycete species, including Crustoderma flavescens and Crustoderma corneum. In addition, extracellular enzymes for cellulose and protein degradation were detected when the isolates were cultured in chromogenic media, which supports the finding that isolate KUC8611 is a wood degrader. Furthermore, an in vitro test for metal tolerance revealed that isolate KUC8611 showed strong arsenic tolerance, but that it could not tolerate copper. Finally, isolate KUC8611 produced lower amounts of oxalic acid than copper-tolerant fungi such as Fomitopsis palustris and Antrodia vaillantii. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to report the degradation of CCA-treated wood by a Crustoderma species.     

Induction of defense responses in tomato against Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato by regulating the stress ethylene level with Methylobacterium oryzae CBMB20 containing 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate deaminase

This study aimed to examine the induction of defense responses in tomato elicited by Methylobacterium oryzae CBMB20 as a consequence of reduced stress ethylene level possibly through its ACC deaminase activity. Significantly increased activities of pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins and defense enzymes such as β-1,3-glucanase, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase were noted in M. oryzae CBMB20 pretreated and challenged with Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (Pst) compared to either control or M. oryzae-treated tomato plants in both growth chamber and greenhouse conditions. Increased PR proteins and defense enzyme activities were correlated with the reduction of stress ethylene level. M. oryzae CBMB20 reduced the stress ethylene level about 27% and 55% when challenged with Pst, in growth chamber and greenhouse on day 7 respectively and the effect was comparable to that of the chemical ethylene biosynthesis inhibitor AVG, L-α-(2-aminoethoxyvinyl)-glycine hydrochloride. As a consequence of reduced stress ethylene level and its effect on defense response in crop plants, the disease severity was reduced 26% in M. oryzae CBMB20-treated plants challenged with pathogen. Therefore, inoculation of M. oryzae CBMB20 would induce the defense enzymes and contribute to the enhanced resistance of tomato plants against the pathogen Pst.