Impaired phytochrome-mediated shade-avoidance responses in the aurea mutant of tomato

Internode extension-growth responses to neighbouring plants and to red to far-red ratios (R:FR) were investigated in wild-type (WT) and aurea (au)-mutant seedlings of tomato grown under natural radiation. The genomic location of the au mutant is not known, but one of its consequences is the reduced phytochrome level. In WT seedlings, internode growth was promoted by the presence of non-shading neighbours reflecting far-red light (FR), the shade of a tall canopy, FR provided as a supplement during the photoperiod, and FR pulses either provided at the end of the day or delayed into the dark period. Supplementary FR during the photoperiod also promoted growth in herbicide-treated partially bleached WT seedlings. The au mutant showed higher background extension-growth rates, but only responded to the most severe treatments: deep shade light and very low R:FR at the end of the day, i.e. au-mutant seedlings were less sensitive than WT seedlings to R:FR signals. Wild-type seedlings were transferred from the glasshouse to a growth room and exposed to white light with two levels of phytochrome-absorbable radiation but similar phytochrome photoequilibria and radiation for photosynthesis. The plants exposed to the lowest level showed a transient increase of internode extension growth rate and a simultaneous reduction of response to FR pulses, i.e. reproduced some of the features of au-mutant seedlings. Phytochrome itself could set the degree of response to Pfr during neighbour detection.     

Phytochrome control of the growth and development of Rumex obtusifolius under simulated canopy light environments*

Abstract Studies on the growth and development of Rumex obtusifolius seedlings under simulated shade conditions show that both light quantity and quality contribute to the observed responses. In the shade situation the plants have lower dry matter, lower leaf area and lower net assimilation rates. Petiole elongation occurs under shade conditions only after transfer of the plants from non-shade environments. The effects of light quality are related to phytochrome photoequilibria set up by the increased relative photon flux in the far-red found under vegetation canopies.     

Molecular analysis of the phytochrome deficiency in an aurea mutant of tomato

Summary The au ^w mutant allele of the aurea locus in tomato has previously been shown to cause deficiency for the phytochrome polypeptide (Parks et al. 1987). We have begun to characterize the molecular basis and consequences of this deficiency. Genomic Southern blot analysis indicates that there are at least two and probably more phytochrome polypeptide structural genes in tomato. RNA blot analysis shows that the au ^w mutant contains normal levels of phytochrome mRNA and in vitro translation of au ^w poly(A)⁺ RNA yields a phytochrome apoprotein that is quantitatively and qualitatively indistinguishable on SDS-polyacrylamide gels from that synthesized from wild-type RNA. These results indicate that the phytochrome deficiency in aurea is not the result of lack of expression of phytochrome genes but is more likely due to instability of the phytochrome polypeptide in planta. Possible reasons for such instability are discussed. Analysis of the molecular phenotype of aurea indicates that the phytochrome-mediated increase in the abundance of the mRNA encoding chlorophyll a/b binding protein (cab) is severely restricted in the mutant as compared with wild-type tomato. Thus, the au w strain exhibits defective photoregulation of gene expression consistent with its very reduced level of the phytochrome photoreceptor.     

Photoregulation of Phenylalanine Ammonia Lyase is not Correlated with Anthocyanin Induction in Photomorphogenetic Mutants of Tomato(Lycopersicon esculentum)

Photoregulation of phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL)(EC 4.3.1.5 [EC] )was analyzed in wild type (WT) and mutants: phytochrome dencient-awrea(au), high pigment exhibiting exaggerated phytochrome response(hp) and the double mutant (au.hp) of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum(Mill.) cv. Ailsa Craig). Red light, acting via phytochrome,stimulates PAL activity in cotyledons and hypocotyls of tomatoseedlings. The time course of photoinduction of PAL in cotyledonsof the mutants (au and au.hp) and WT seedlings has a peak ofactivity at 4 h, after which the activity falls sharply, exceptin hp seedlings where activity is maintained at a high level.In hypocotyls, photoinduction of PAL also shows an initial rise,reaching a maximum at 3 h, followed by a sharp decline in themutants (au and au.hp) and WT seedlings. However in hp seedlingsphotoinduction of PAL is about 3 fold that in WT. The photoinductionof PAL appears to be dependent on de novo synthesis of proteinand nucleic acids. The use of a PAL specific inhibitor a-aminooxyß-phenylpropionic acid indicated that PAL is an essentialcomponent of the anthocyanin biosyn-thetic pathway in the tomatoseedlings. However, a comparison of anthocyanin biosynthesis[Adamse et al. (1989) Photochem. Photobiol. 50: 107] and PALphotoinduction data revealed that phytochrome mediated inductionof PAL and anthocyanin in the tomato seedlings are not correlated.While au and au.hp mutant seedlings show a similar increasein PAL level as in the WT, there is little formation of anthocyaninin these mutant seedlings. The results indicate that, in contrastto the photoregulation of anthocyanin synthesis which is dependenton the presence of the labile phytochrome (IP) pool in tomatoseedlings, the photoinduction of PAL is mediated via a smallpool of phytochrome in au mutant: stable phytochrome (sP) ora residual /P pool. (Received August 6, 1991; Accepted September 27, 1991)     

Molecular and phenotypic specificity of an antisense PHYB gene in Arabidopsis

The family of phytochrome photoreceptors plays an essential role in regulating plant growth and development in response to the light environment. An antisense PHYB transgene has been introduced into wild-type Arabidopsis and shown to inhibit expression of the PHYB sense mRNA and the phyB phytochrome protein 4- to 5-fold. This inhibition is specific to phyB in that the levels of the four other phytochromes, notably the closely related phyD and phyE phytochromes, are unaffected in the antisense lines. Antisense-induced reduction in phyB causes alterations of red light effects on seedling hypocotyl elongation, rosette leaf morphology, and chlorophyll content, similar to the phenotypic changes caused by phyB null mutations. However, unlike the phyB mutants, the antisense lines do not flower early compared to the wild type. Furthermore, unlike the phyB mutants, the antisense lines do not show a reduction in phyC level compared to the wild type, making it possible to unequivocally associate several of the photomorphogenic effects seen in phyB mutants with phytochrome B alone. These results indicate that an antisense transgene approach can be used to specifically inhibit the expression and activity of a single member of the phytochrome family and to alter aspects of shade avoidance responses in a targeted manner.     

Growth and photosynthesis of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) in simulated vegetation shade: influence of the ratio of red to far-red radiation*

Abstract. Glycine max (L.) Merr. was grown under several light conditions to determine the role of red and far-red radiation in plant adaptation to vegetation shade. Neutral density,‘neutral’ density with elevated far-red radiation, and green shade treatments were used in a greenhouse, producing calculated phytochrome photostationary state (P_fr/P_r+P_fr) values of 0.68, 0.63 and 0.51, respectively. Cool-white fluorescent lamps either alone or in conjunction with far-red fluorescent lamps were used in a growth chamber, providing P_fr/P_r+P_fr of 0.79 and 0.61, respectively. Daily photo-synthetically active radiation was about 25% of daylight and was approximately equal for both greenhouse (2.15MJ m^?2) and growth chamber (2.57MJ m^?2). Developmental stage 4 weeks after sowing was similar for all treatments, but axillary growth and rates of leaf area and dry matter accretion differed between plants from greenhouse and growth chamber. Light conditions simulating vegetation shade (i.e. a low ratio of red to far-red radiation) significantly promoted petiole elongation and retarded the rate of stem elongation in both greenhouse and growth chamber experiments. Other aspects of growth either were not significantly altered by spectral quality or were not modified consistently in both greenhouse and growth chamber environments. Net photosynthetic rates measured under growth conditions for unifoliate and first trifoliolate (TF₁) leaves of growth chamber plants between 9 and 21 d after sowing were generally unaffected by spectral quality, but supplemental FR enhanced TF₁ leaf area expansion. The latter effect was not correlated with increased dry matter accumulation. The significance of spectral quality for adaptation of soybeans to canopy closure and intercropping is discussed.     

Neighbour signals perceived by phytochrome B increase thermotolerance in Arabidopsis

Due to the preeminence of reductionist approaches, understanding of plant responses to combined stresses is limited. We speculated that light‐quality signals of neighbouring vegetation might increase susceptibility to heat shocks because shade reduces tissue temperature and hence the likeness of heat shocks. In contrast, plants of Arabidopsis thaliana grown under low‐red/far‐red ratios typical of shade were less damaged by heat stress than plants grown under simulated sunlight. Neighbour signals reduce the activity of phytochrome B (phyB), increasing the abundance of PHYTOCHROME‐INTERACTING FACTORS (PIFs). The phyB mutant showed high tolerance to heat stress even under simulated sunlight, and a pif multiple mutant showed low tolerance under simulated shade. phyB and red/far‐red ratio had no effects on seedlings acclimated with nonstressful warm temperatures before the heat shock. The phyB mutant showed reduced expression of several fatty acid desaturase (FAD) genes and less proportion of fully unsaturated fatty acids and electrolyte leakage of membranes exposed to heat shocks. Red‐light‐activated phyB also reduced thermotolerance of dark‐grown seedlings but not via changes in FADs expression and membrane stability. We propose that the reduced photosynthetic capacity linked to thermotolerant membranes would be less costly under shade, where the light input limits photosynthesis.     

The aurea mutant of tomato is deficient in spectrophotometrically and immunochemically detectable phytochrome

The aurea locus mutant (au ^w) of tomato contains less than 5% of the level of phytochrome in wild-type tissue as measured by in vivo difference spectroscopy. Immunoblot analysis using antibodies directed against etiolated-oat phytochrome demonstrates that crude extracts of etiolated mutant tissue are deficient in a major immunodetectable protein (116 kDa) normally present in the parent wild type. Analyses of wild-type tissue extracts strongly indicate that the 116-kDa protein is phytochrome by showing that this protein: a) is degraded more rapidly in vitro after a brief far-red irradiation than after a brief red irradiation (Vierstra RD, Quail PH, Planta 156: 158–165, 1982); b) contains a covalently bound chromophore as detected by Zn-chromophore fluorescence on nitrocellulose blots; and c) has an apparent molecular mass comparable to phytochrome from other species on size exclusion chromatography under non-denaturing conditions. The demonstration that the aurea mutant is deficient in this 116-kDa phytochrome indicates that the lack of spectrally detectable phytochrome in this mutant is the result of a lesion which affects the abundance of the phytochrome molecule as opposed to its spectral integrity.     

遮荫对异株荨麻光合特性和荧光参数的影响

系统研究了全光照和不同程度的遮荫(43%,58%,73%,87%,97%)对异株荨麻光合特性和荧光参数的影响。结果表明,异株荨麻的光补偿点和光饱和点均较低,且随着遮荫程度的提高,其值以及暗呼吸速率均依次降低。净光合速率日变化曲线呈单峰型,光合速率高峰值和日平均光合速率均随着遮荫程度的提高而明显下降。蒸腾速率和气孔导度的日变化与光合速率的日变化趋势一致,遮荫对蒸腾作用和气孔导度均有显著的影响,随着遮荫程度的提高,蒸腾速率和气孔导度均显著下降。在各光照条件下,蒸腾速率与气孔导度呈显著正相关。蒸腾速率和气孔导度与光合速率的相关性随遮荫条件的不同而异,全光照条件下蒸腾速率与光合速率呈显著正相关,而所有遮荫条件下相关性不显著。气孔导度与光合速率在所有光照下相关性均不显著。各遮荫条件下叶片总叶绿素、叶绿素a、叶绿素b含量均显著高于全光照的,且随遮荫程度的提高叶绿素含量呈上升趋势,而叶绿素a/b的值则随着遮荫程度的提高而下降。叶绿素荧光参数PSⅡ内禀光能转化效率(Fv/Fm)和潜在活性(Fv/Fo)日变化呈单谷曲线。各遮荫条件下Fv/Fm和Fv/Fo值均高于全光照的,且随着遮荫程度的提高其值均依次增加。这说明,异株荨麻是一种耐荫性很强的植物,遮荫可使其降低光补偿点、光饱和点、净光合速率、暗呼吸速率以及叶绿素a/b,但增加总叶绿素、叶绿素a、叶绿素b含量、光能利用率以及PSⅡ原初光能转化效率和潜在活性,以增强在弱光条件下的生长发育能力。     

Bottom-up Assembly of the Phytochrome Network

Plants have developed sophisticated systems to monitor and rapidly acclimate to environmental fluctuations. Light is an essential source of environmental information throughout the plant’s life cycle. The model plant Arabidopsis thaliana possesses five phytochromes (phyA-phyE) with important roles in germination, seedling establishment, shade avoidance, and flowering. However, our understanding of the phytochrome signaling network is incomplete, and little is known about the individual roles of phytochromes and how they function cooperatively to mediate light responses. Here, we used a bottom-up approach to study the phytochrome network. We added each of the five phytochromes to a phytochrome-less background to study their individual roles and then added the phytochromes by pairs to study their interactions. By analyzing the 16 resulting genotypes, we revealed unique roles for each phytochrome and identified novel phytochrome interactions that regulate germination and the onset of flowering. Furthermore, we found that ambient temperature has both phytochrome-dependent and -independent effects, suggesting that multiple pathways integrate temperature and light signaling. Surprisingly, none of the phytochromes alone conferred a photoperiodic response. Although phyE and phyB were the strongest repressors of flowering, both phyB and phyC were needed to confer a flowering response to photoperiod. Thus, a specific combination of phytochromes is required to detect changes in photoperiod, whereas single phytochromes are sufficient to respond to light quality, indicating how phytochromes signal different light cues.     

Genes affecting phenotypic plasticity in Arabidopsis: pleiotropic effects and reproductive fitness of photomorphogenic mutants

Many plants exhibit characteristic photomorphogenic shade ’avoidance’ responses to crowding and vegetation shade; this plasticity is often hypothesized to be adaptive. We examined the contribution of specific photomorphogenic loci to plastic shade avoidance responses in the annual crucifer Arabidopsis thaliana by comparing single-gene mutants defective at those loci with wild type plants exhibiting normal photomorphogenesis. The hy1 and hy2 mutants, deficient in all functional phytochromes, were less plastic than the wild type in response to a nearby grass canopy or to a low-red/far-red light ratio characteristic of vegetation shade. These mutants displayed constitutively shade-avoiding phenotypes throughout the life cycle regardless of the treatment: they bolted at an earlier developmental stage and were characterized by reduced branching. In contrast, the hy4 mutant, deficient in blue light reception, exhibited greater plasticity than the wild type in response to vegetation shade after the seedling stage. This mutant produced more leaves before bolting and more basal branches under normal light conditions when compared to the wild type. These results indicate that specific photomorphogenic loci have different and sometimes antagonistic pleiotropic effects on the plastic response to vegetation shade throughout the life cycle of the plant. The fitness of the constitutively shade-avoiding phytochrome-deficient mutants was lower than that of the plastic wild type under normal light, but was not different in the vegetation shade treatments, where all genotypes converged toward similar shade avoidance phenotypes. This outcome supports one key prediction of the adaptive plasticity hypothesis: that inappropriate expression of shade avoidance traits is maladaptive.     

Phytochrome photoconversion

The spectral properties of native and modified phytochromes and the molecular events during phytochrome photoconversion, , are reviewed. Steady-state and time-resolved absorption spectra of native phytochrome A, as well as recombinant phytochromes (oat and potato phytochrome A and potato phytochrome B) reconstituted with phycocyanobilin and phytochromobilin as chromophores, are analysed. The vinyl double bond, present at position 18 in phytochromobilin and substituted by an ethyl group in phycocyanobilin, has a considerable influence on the photo-transformation kinetics of phytochromes A and B, evidently due to a strong interaction of this region of the chromophore with the protein surrounding. The kinetics of the phototransformation of potato phytochrome B differs from that of oat phytochrome A (wild-type and recombinant), indicating that the chromophore-protein interaction in phytochrome B is different from that in phytochrome A. It remains to be seen whether this difference is due to the di- versus monocotyledon origin of the phytochromes. Optoacoustic spectroscopy, applied to native oat phytochrome A, afforded thermo-dynamic, structural and kinetic parameters of the Pr→I₇₀₀ and the I₇₀₀→Pr phototransformations. Raman and infrared spectroscopic data for wild-type phytochrome A suggest that the protonated chromophore in Pr undergoes torsions around two single bonds in addition to the Z→E isomerization of the 15 ,16 double bond, and that all transients, possibly with the exception of I_bI, are protonated at the central pyrrole ring.     

The rosette habit of Arabidopsis thaliana is dependent upon phytochrome action: novel phytochromes control internode elongation and flowering time

A major function of phytochromes in light-grown plants involves the perception of changes in the relative amounts of red and far-red light (R:FR ratio) and the initiation of the shade-avoidance response. In Arabidopsis thaliana, this response is typified by increased elongation growth of petioles and accelerated flowering and can be fully induced by end-of-day far-red light (EOD FR) treatments. Phytochrome B-deficient (phyB) mutants, which have a constitutive elongated-petiole and early-flowering phenotype, do not display a petiole elongation growth response to EOD FR, but they do respond to EOD FR by earlier flowering. Seedlings deficient in both phytochrome A and phytochrome B (phyA phyB), have a greatly reduced stature compared with wild-type or either monogenic mutant. The phyA phyB double null mutants also respond to EOD FR treatments by flowering early, suggesting the operation of novel phytochromes. Contrary to the behaviour of wild-type or monogenic phyA or phyB seedlings, petiole elongation in phyA phyB seedlings is reduced in response to EOD FR treatments. This reduction in petiole elongation is accompanied by the appearance of elongated internodes such that under these conditions the plants no longer display a rosette habit.     

Phytochrome Levels in Light-Grown Avena Change in Response to End-of-Day Irradiations

The effect of 15-minute end-of-day irradiations on photoreversible phytochrome levels in light-grown oat (Avena sativa L., cv Garry) seedlings was investigated. Oat seedlings were grown in a cycle of 8 hours of natural daylight and 16 hours of complete darkness, from sowing until harvest at day 10. The level of extractable, photoreversible phytochrome per unit fresh weight was 60% higher after end-of-day far-red irradiation than after either end-of-day red irradiation or end-of-day far-red followed by end-of-day red. Seedlings irradiated with end-of-day far-red also exhibited a small but significant increase in shoot height and fresh weight per seedling. Extracts of seedlings given each of these end-of-day treatments were analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, electroblotted, and immunostained with monoclonal antibodies specific to different phytochromes. Regardless of end-of-day light treatment, phytochrome that is abundant in etiolated tissue was below the limit of detection, indicating that one or more of the phytochromes predominating in green tissue changes in abundance.     

The effect of light on the level of acetylcholine in seedlings of the wild-type and phytochrome mutants of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.)

Applying the method of pyrolysis coupled with gas chromatography (PYR-GC) the content of endogenous acetylcholine (ACh) was investigated in the extracts obtained from tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). Seven-day-old seedlings of wild type (WT) and phytochrome mutants au (aurea), hp (high pigment), fri (far-red light insensitive) and tri (temporarily red light insensitive) were studied. In the analyzed material the presence of choline and acetylcholine was discovered. The highest content of ACh (381 mmole/g of fresh weight) was found in tomato cotyledons, whereas the lowest amount (162 nmole/g of fresh weight) in roots. The level of ACh in the plants grown under the continuous light was higher than in etiolated ones. However, no considerable differences in the concentrations of ACh in au and tri seedlings grown under the continuous light and in darkness were observed. The irradiation of etiolated seedlings of wild type with red light was accompanied by the increase of endogenous level of ACh. The pulse of far-red light applied directly after red light reversed this stimulating effect. A similar effect of both light wavelengths on the content of ACh was also found in the case of the tri mutant. On the other hand, in the case of fri mutant, pulse of red light caused the drop in the content of ACh, whereas far-red applied after red light caused visible increase in the level of the investigated substance. In tissues of au mutant no effect of red and far-red lights on the concentration of ACh was established.     

Analysis of phytochrome- and ABA-deficient mutants suggests that ABA degradation is controlled by light in Nicotiana plumbaginifolia

The phytochrome chromophore-deficient mutant, pew1, of Nicotiana plumbaginifolia exhibited decreased germination and slower dehydration of detached leaves during water stress as compared with the wild-type. These physiological processes are controlled by abscisic acid (ABA) and we examined, therefore, whether phytochrome plays a specific role in the regulation of ABA metabolism using the pew1 mutant. The ABA contents of mature seeds and young leaves were analysed and in both cases mutant material was found to contain higher amounts of ABA as compared with the wild-type. This indicates that the phytochrome activation can lead to a decrease of the ABA level in the wild-type plant. The role of phytochromes was investigated in greater detail using the ABA-deficient mutant aba1 of N. plumbaginifolia exhibiting an early and synchronous germination. This mutant accumulates at very high levels a metabolite derived from a precursor (ABA-aldehyde) in the ABA biosynthetic pathway. The first biochemical characterization of this molecule, which corresponds to the glucose-conjugated ABA-alcohol (ABA-AG) is described. A pew1-aba1 double mutant exhibiting both an etiolated growth and early germination was also obtained. The comparable accumulation of ABA-AG in the pew1-aba1 double mutant as compared with the aba1 mutant allowed the proposition that, in a wild-type plant, the phytochrome-mediated light signal enhances ABA degradation rather than inhibits its biosynthesis.     

Roles of different phytochromes in Arabidopsis photomorphogenesis

The red/far-red light-absorbing phytochromes play fundamental roles in photoperception of the light environment and the subsequent adaptation of plant growth and development. Higher plants possess multiple, discrete phytochromes, the apoproteins of which are the products of a family of divergent (PHY) genes. Arabidopsis thaliana has at least five PHY genes, encoding the apoproteins of phytochromes A-E. Through the analysis of mutants that are deficient in phytochrome A or B and the corresponding double mutant, it is becoming clear that these phytochromes perform both discrete and overlapping roles throughout plant development. Through analysis of the phyA phyB double mutant, it has been possible to define several responses that are mediated by other members of the phytochrome family. This article reviews some of the recent progress in the study of phytochrome-deficient mutants of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana.     

Co-action between phytochrome B and HY4 in Arabidopsis thaliana

A combination of physiological and genetic approaches was used to investigate whether phytochromes and blue light (BL) photoreceptors act in a fully independent manner during photomorphogenesis of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. Wild-type seedlings and phyA, phyBand hy4 mutants were daily exposed to 3 h BL terminated with either a red light (R) or a far-red light (FR) pulse. In wild-type and phyA-mutant seedlings, BL followed by an R pulse inhibited hypocotyl growth and promoted cotyledon unfolding. The effects of BL were reduced if exposure to BL was followed by an FR pulse driving phytochrome to the R-absorbing form (Pr). In the wild type, the effects of R versus FR pulses were small in seedlings not exposed to BL. Thus, maximal responses depended on the presence of both BL and the FR-absorbing form of phytochrome (Pfr) in the subsequent dark period. Impaired responses to BL and to R versus FR pulses were observed in phyB and hy4 mutants. Simultaneous irradiation with orange light indicated that BL, perceived by specific BL photoreceptors (i.e. not by phytochromes), required phytochrome B to display a full effect. These results indicate interdependent co-action between phytochrome B and BL photoreceptors, particularly the HY4 gene product. No synergism between phytochrome A (activated by continuous or pulsed FR) and BL photoreceptors was observed.Abbreviations BL blue light - D darkness - FR far-redlight - FRc continuous FR - Pfr FR-absorbing form of phytochrome - Pfr/P proportion of phytochrome as Pfr - phyA phytochrome A - phyB phytochrome B - R red light - WT wild type We thank Professors R.E. Kendrick and M. Koornneef (Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands), Professor J. Chory (Salk Institute, Calif., USA) and the Arabidopsis Biological Resource Center (Ohio State University, Ohio, USA) for their kind provision of the original seed batches. This work was financially supported by CONICET, Universidad de Buenos Aires (AG 040) and Fundación Antorchas (A-12830/1 0000/9)     

Photosynthetic adaptation to light availability shapes the ecological success of bloom-forming cyanobacterium Pseudanabaena to iron limitation

The poorly understood filamentous cyanobacterium Pseudanabaena is commonly epiphytic on Microcystis colonies and their abundances are often highly correlated during blooms. The response and adaptation of Microcystis to iron limitation have been extensively studied, but the strategies Pseudanabaena uses to respond to iron limitation are largely unknown. Here, physiological responses to iron limitation were compared between one Pseudanabaena and two Microcystis strains grown under different light intensities. The results showed that low-intensity light exacerbated, but high-intensity light alleviated, the negative effect of iron limitation on Pseudanabaena growth relative to two Microcystis strains. It was found that robust light-harvesting and photosynthetic efficiency allowed adaptation of Pseudanabaena to low light availability relative to two Microcystis strains only during iron sufficiency. The results also indicated that a larger investment in the photosynthetic antenna probably contributed to light/iron co-limitation of Pseudanabaena relative to two Microcystis strains under both light and iron limitation. Furthermore, the lower antenna pigments/chlorophyll a ratio and photosynthetic efficiency, and higher nonphotochemical quenching and saturation irradiance provided Pseudanabaena photoadaptation and photoprotection advantages over the two Microcystis strains under the high-light condition. The lower investment in antenna pigments of Pseudanabaena than the two Microcystis strains under high-light intensity is likely an efficient strategy for both saving iron quotas and decreasing photosensitivity. Therefore, when compared with Microcystis, the high plasticity of antenna pigments, along with the excellent photoadaptation and photoprotection ability of Pseudanabaena, probably ensures its ecological success under iron limitation when light is sufficient.     

Light quantity and quality interactions in the control of elongation growth in light-grown Chenopodium rubrum L. seedlings

The spectral control of hypocotyl elongation in light-grown Chenopodium rubrum L. seedlings has been studied. The results showed that although the seedlings responded to changes in the quantity of combined red and far-red radiation, they were also very sensitive to changes in the quantity of blue radiation reaching the plant. Altering the proportion of red: far-red radiation in broad waveband white light caused marked differences in hypocotyl extension. Comparison of the responses of green and chlorophyll-free seedlings indicated no qualitative difference in the response to any of the light sources used, although photosynthetically incompetent plants were more sensitive to all wavelengths. Blue light was found to act primarily of a photoreceptor which is different from phytochrome. It is concluded that hypocotyl extension rate in vegetation shade is photoregulated by the quantity of blue light and the proportion of red: far-red radiation. In neutral shade, such as that caused by stones or overlying soil, hypocotyl extension appears to be regulated primarily by the quantity of light in the blue waveband and secondarily by the quantity of light in the red and far-red wavebands.Abbreviations B blue - FR far-red - k ₁, k ₂ rate constants for photoconverison of Pr to Pfr and Pfr to Pr, respective - k ₁/k ₁ +k ₂= phytochrome photoequilibrium - k ₁ +k ₂= phytochrome cycling rate - Pr=R absorbing form of phytochrome - Pfr=FR absorbing form of phytochrome - P_tot Pr+Pfr - PAR photosynthetically active radiation = 400–700 nm - R red - WL white light