Some Recent Developments in Evolutionary Approaches to the Study of Human Cognition and Behavior

In this paper I review some theoretical exchanges and empiricalresults from recent work on human behavior and cognition in thehope of indicating some productive avenues for critical engagement.I focus particular attention on methodological debates between Evolutionary Psychologists and behavioral ecologists. I argue for a broader and more encompassing approach to the evolutionarily based study of human behavior and cognition than either of these two rivals present.     

The Altyerre Story—‘Suffering Badly by Translation’

In culture‐contact situations, it is commonplace for words to be borrowed from other unrelated vernaculars, for their pronunciations to be changed, and their meanings modified to fit new contexts. The Arandic word altyerre is a rather extreme example of this, and at the end of the nineteenth century, the ‘translation’ of the related word Alcheringa as ‘dream‐times’ sparked a debate that, in some forms, continues to this day. In this article, I discuss some of the reasons why this particular word struck such a controversial chord. I give an updated semantic perspective on the word altyerre , drawing on evidence from Arandic languages and from other languages in Central Australia. Then I examine some of the consequences of both religious and secular interpretations of altyerre and show how the popularisation of this word and its translations has impacted on its meanings in current usage.     

From bi-racial to tri-racial: Towards a new system of racial stratification in the USA

In this article I argue that the bi-racial order (white vs non-white) typical of the United States is undergoing a profound transformation. Because of drastic changes in the demography of the nation as well as changes in the racial structure of the world-system, the United States is developing a complex, Latin America-like racial order. Specifically, I suggest that the new order will have two central features: three loosely organized racial strata (white, honorary white, and the collective black) and a pigmentocratic logic. I examine some objective, subjective, and social interaction indicators to assess if the Latin Americanization thesis holds some water. Although more refined data are needed to conclusively make my case, the available indicators support my thesis. I conclude this article by outlining some of the potential implications of Latin Americanization for the future of race relations in the United States.     

Organisms in evolution

Organisms constitute one of the most remarkable features of our living world. However, they have not yet received any accepted characterization within the framework of the evolutionary theory. The reasons for this contrast between the saliency of organisms in the biological landscape and their theoretical status are multiple and they are analyzed in the first part of this paper. Starting from this contrast, I argue for a theoretically grounded concept of organism within the framework of evolutionary theory itself. To this effect I argue that the theory of major transitions in evolution (Maynard Smith and Szathmáry 1995; Michod 1999) provides us with the theoretical basis for an understanding of the individuality of organisms and I propose a first characterization of organisms as evolutionary units structured by a division of reproductive labor among their parts. I also discuss one of the most important implications of this definition, namely that some colonial entities are to be counted as superorganisms. Finally, I show that though theoretically satisfying, this definition does not suffice in order fully to individuate the organisms and superorganisms in practice. To this end, physiology is needed, because it offers us some criteria for their individuation in ecological space. These criteria, however, are not immune to errors through misidentification and their shortcomings are discussed in the last section. In conclusion, I emphasize the positive implications of these criteria concerning the ecological significance of organisms.     

Phyllotaxis in the Oil Palm: Arrangement of Fronds on the Trunk of Mature Palms

Estimates of Equivalent Phyllotaxis Index—E.P.I.—arepresented for palms of various ages, measuring the arrangementof fronds on the cylindrical trunk. It is contended that accurateE.P.I. estimates can most readily be obtained from the trunksof older (20-year) palms where the fronds have sloughed offleaving clear scars. The technique is thus in contrast withprevious work in this species and so are some of the resultsobtained. Measures of E.P.I. decrease further up the trunk—correspondingit is suggested to an increase in the ratio of longitudinalto radial growth-rates. Various internal and external competitivestress situations are invoked to account for this phenomenon.The values for E.P.I. are interpreted in terms of Fibonacciparastichies and also in terms of some growth-rate parameterestimates.     

Inferring speciation rates from phylogenies

Abstract It is possible to estimate the rate of diversification of clades from phylogenies with a temporal dimension. First, I present several methods for constructing confidence intervals for the speciation rate under the simple assumption of a pure birth process. I discuss the relationships among these methods in the hope of clarifying some fundamental theory in this area. Their performances are compared in a simulation study and one is recommended for use as a result. A variety of other questions that may, in fact, be the questions of primary interest (e.g., Has the rate of cladogenesis been declining?) are then recast as biological variants of the purely statistical question—Is the birth process model appropriate for my data? Seen in this way, a preexisting arsenal of statistical techniques is opened up for use in this area: in particular, techniques developed for the analysis of Poisson processes and the analysis of survival data. These two approaches start from different representations of the data—the branch lengths in the tree—and I explicitly relate the two. Aiming for a synoptic account of useful theory in this area, I briefly discuss some important results from the analysis of two distinct birth‐death processes: the one introduced into this area by Hey (1992) is refitted with some powerful statistical tools.     

The architecture of visual cortex and inferential processes in vision

This paper is organised approximately into two halves. In the first half, I review evidence about the structure of the visual system, and I use that evidence to frame what I think are widely held but often implicit ideas about how it works, namely that vision is principally analysis of retinal input. These ideas have been strongly influenced by engineering approaches; form a default view of the visual system that suffuses all the language used to describe it (at least in visual neuroscience); and are to some extent supported by the structural evidence. In the second half, I explore some inconvenient facts from neuroanatomy and neurophysiology which are quite uncomfortable for the traditional view. I then set out a contrary view of how structure and function are linked in the visual system, which is a neurobiological variety of the quite developed view in psychophysics that vision is better understood as knowledge-rich inference. Finally, I explore some of the ramifications of this view for neurophysiological understanding of how the visual system might operate during normal vision.     

Emergence in the central nervous system

“Emergence” is an idea that has received much attention in consciousness literature, but it is difficult to find characterizations of that concept which are both specific and useful. I will precisely define and characterize a type of epistemic (“weak”) emergence and show that it is a property of some neural circuits throughout the CNS, on micro-, meso- and macroscopic levels. I will argue that possession of this property can result in profoundly altered neural dynamics on multiple levels in cortex and other systems. I will first describe emergent neural entities (ENEs) abstractly. I will then show how ENEs function specifically and concretely, and demonstrate some implications of this type of emergence for the CNS.     

Should human germ line editing be allowed? Some suggestions on the basis of the existing regulatory framework

The application of genetic editing techniques for the prevention or cure of disease is a highly promising tool for the future of humanity. However, its implementation contains a number of ethical and legal challenges that should not be underestimated. On this basis, some sectors have already asked for a veto on any intervention that modifies the human germ line, while supporting somatic line editing. In this paper, I will support that this suggestion makes no sense at all, because the somatic/germ line disjunctive has no moral relevance and, therefore, it should not play any role in legal terms. I will provide a number of reasons to hold this assumption, such as the non‐sacred nature of the germ line, the difference between germ line and human genome modification, or the moral importance of the presence of a will to create modified descendants. While doing so, I will provide some examples of the different approaches to germ line editing adopted by different regulations so as to demonstrate that, contrary to what is sometimes stated, a general ban on this practice is not the rule, but the exception. Additionally, I will show how alternative options which currently exist, such as a selective ban based on criteria different to the germ line/somatic line distinction, match better with the need to conciliate research needs and legitimate ethical concerns. Finally, I will introduce some further suggestions to this same purpose.     

The evolution of virulence in vector-borne and directly transmitted parasites

Ewald (1994) has suggested that vector-borne parasites are expected to evolve a higher level of host exploitation than directly transmitted parasites, and this should thereby result in them being more virulent. Indeed, some data do conform to this general pattern. Nevertheless, his hypothesis has generated some debate about the extent to which it is valid. I explore this issue quantitatively within the framework of mathematical epidemiology. In particular, I present a dynamic optimization model for the evolution of parasite replication strategies that explicitly explores the validity of this hypothesis. A few different model assumptions are explored and it is found that Ewald's hypothesis has only qualified support as a general explanation for why vector-borne parasites are more virulent than those that are directly transmitted. I conclude by suggesting that an alternative explanation might lie in differences in inoculum size between these two types of transmission.     

On cloning human beings

The purpose of this paper is to show that arguments for and against cloning fail to make their case because of one or both of the following reasons: 1) they take for granted customary beliefs and assumptions that are far from being unquestionable; 2) they tend to ignore the context in which human cloning is developed. I will analyze some of the assumptions underlying the main arguments that have been offered for and against cloning. Once these assumptions are critically analyzed, arguments both rejecting and supporting human cloning seem to lose weight. I will first briefly present the main arguments that have been proposed against cloning and I will argue that they fail to establish their case. In the next section I will evaluate some of the positive arguments that have been offered supporting such technology. This analysis will show that the case for cloning also fails. Finally, I will maintain that because critics and especially supporters of this technology neglect the context in which human cloning is developed and might be implemented, their arguments are far from compelling.     

The behavioural ecology of provisioning in birds

Ydenberg, R. 2000. The behavioural ecology of provisioning in birds. Ostrich 71 (1): 361.

In this talk I outline the idea of provisioning, stressing the difference between feeding and delivery. Foraging studies have just begun to recognise this distinction, and to explore some of its implications for behaviour. I outline a basic model of provisioning, based on central place foraging, in which the forager must spend some extra time on each excursion to gather enough energy to cover the excursion's energetic costs. I describe studies of provisioning pertinent to this framework, and go on to consider risk-sensitive provisioning, the role of predation danger in provisioning, and the question of how hard provisioners should work.     

Do plant‐eating insect lineages pass through phases of host‐use generalism during speciation and host switching? Phylogenetic evidence

The Oscillation Hypothesis posits that plant‐eating insect diversity is generated by cycles of diet breadth expansion and contraction. Although at any given time most plant‐eating insect species are host specialists, host‐use evolution and speciation tend to entail a phase of generalism. The main evidence for this comes from comparative phylogenetic studies, but with mixed support. Here, I review and add to this evidence. I show that some of the original work that inspired the Oscillation Hypothesis is flawed in a way that leads to spurious inferences about trends in the evolution of diet diversity. And I present a new analysis which fails to support its predictions about patterns of species diversity. On the other hand, some of the published work that claims to reject the Oscillation Hypothesis may actually provide some of the strongest support for it, and I present new analyses which support its prediction that host‐use generalism facilitates host‐use evolution. In summary, the Oscillation Hypothesis successfully predicts some phylogenetic patterns but not others. Generalism appears to facilitate host‐use evolution, but it does not appear to be inevitably chased by host‐use specialization and speciation.     

Ethics consultation as moral engagement

I will begin by presenting some doubts about what might be called the "received view" of the role of the moral expert as a health care consultant. Then I will review the literature on moral experts and moral expertise and proceed to apply the results of that review to the notion that there are some who are expert in ethical decision making in health care. I will try to show that certain conclusions that can be drawn from this rather circumscribed topic have implications for the very conception of the relationship between moral theory and clinical ethics.     

Membranes,viruses, detergents,and endosomes

The fluid mosaic model for biological membranes was formulated 40 years ago. Ten years later endosomes were discovered as important prelysosomal organelles. At the outset of my research career, I was fortunate to witness both these turning points in biochemistry and cell biology from close up, and to participate in some of the studies. In this short essay, I will describe how this came about, and also try to provide some background as to the general starting situation in those not so distant pioneering years of membrane biology.     

I Helped Build That: A Demonstration Employment Training Program for Homeless Youth in Toronto, Canada

In this case study I present preliminary findings on the development of Eva's Phoenix—a pilot project designed to provide housing and employment-training opportunities for homeless youth in Toronto, Canada. I focus on the construction-training program for youth and explore some of the tensions that can arise in a project of this nature. These include consulting youth about the project's directions and facilitating their participation, representational authority in relation to how the project is promoted, and the need to reconcile different values and expectations for delivering the program on the part of partnering organizations and the youth themselves. I challenge perceptions of welfare and welfare reform in relation to youth and offer some insights into what types of services and interventions can potentially help homeless youth, [homelessness, youth, housing, employment training]     

Unraveling the Photosystem I Reaction Center: A History,or the Sum of Many Efforts

This article describes some aspects of the history of the discovery of the structure and function of Photosystem I (PS I). PS I is the largest and most complex membrane protein for which detailed structural and functional information is now available. This short historical review cannot cover all the work that has been carried out over more than 50 years, nor provide a deep insight into the structure and function of this protein complex. Instead, this review focuses on more personal views of some of the key discoveries, starting in the 1950s with the discovery of the existence of two photoreactions in oxygenic photosynthesis, and ending with the race towards an atomic structure of PS I.     

Alterations in hypertensive arteries

Mentoring in academia is often carried out in an informal way depending on individuals and circumstances. I was quite fortunate to make the acquaintance of Professor E.E. Daniel when I was making a transition from my research in entomology to biomedical sciences. Here I recount some of that experience, and describe some of the lessons I have learned from this experience, as my tribute to Dr. Daniel on the occasion of his 80th birthday.     

ARE MORAL PHILOSOPHERS MORAL EXPERTS?

In this paper I examine the question of whether ethicists are moral experts. I call people moral experts if their moral judgments are correct with high probability and for the right reasons. I defend three theses, while developing a version of the coherence theory of moral justification based on the differences between moral and nonmoral experience: The answer to the question of whether there are moral experts depends on the answer to the question of how to justify moral judgments. Deductivism and the coherence theory both provide some support for the opinion that moral experts exist in some way. I maintain – within the framework of a certain kind of coherence theory – that moral philosophers are ‘semi‐experts’.     

Problems in the Psychology of Activity

My purpose today is to sum up a number of the postulates concerning activity as it is used in psychology, without introducing any new ones; and I shall do this with the following in mind. Until now I have used a system of concepts I proposed earlier with respect to an analysis of activity; of course, I should like to work out a position, first and foremost my own, on this system, and to reexamine it. On the other hand, I should like to pose a number of questions, such as: Is this system of concepts of any significance, i.e., is it able to work in psychology? Obviously, this system must be developed, which essentially has not been done in recent years. This system of concepts is frozen, without any movement. I personally was quite alone in this respect. All movement takes place with regard to various problems contiguous with the problem of activity, some more, some less; but in my opinion, the concept of activity has been developed highly unsatisfactorily. That is why I thought I should try, today, to sum up very briefly what I think is important.