敲低低密度脂蛋白受体相关蛋白1抑制C3H10T1/2多潜能干细胞定向成脂

C3H10T1/2多潜能干细胞成脂过程分为定向和分化两个阶段,骨形成蛋白4(BMP4)可以诱导其定向成前脂肪细胞．已有的研究表明,脂肪组织特异性敲除低密度脂蛋白受体相关蛋白1(Lrp1)的小鼠体重减轻,脂肪组织含量减少,揭示此基因对成脂具有重要作用．然而,目前尚不清楚Lrp1是否在成脂定向过程中发挥作用．采用小干扰RNA技术(RNAi),在体外水平研究低密度脂蛋白Lrp1对C3H10T1/2多潜能干细胞成脂定向的作用．分别在C3H10T1/2成脂的定向期和脂滴成熟期敲低Lrp1,通过显微镜下观察、油红O染色、Western blotting等实验证实,定向期而非脂滴成熟期敲低Lrp1显著抑制C3H10T1/2多潜能干细胞成脂．BMP4通过激活下游Smad1/5/8信号通路发挥作用,而敲低Lrp1显著抑制BMP4诱导的Smad1/5/8磷酸化．这些结果说明：敲低Lrp1通过下调Smad信号通路,抑制BMP4诱导的C3H10T1/2多潜能干细胞成脂定向．     

生肌蛋白的功能与调节

生肌蛋白（ｍｙｏｇｅｎｉｎ）是ＭｙｏＤ家族的成员之一。胚胎发育过程中生肌蛋白在肌肉形成区持续表达,决定骨骼肌的特异表型,在骨骼肌分化过程担当着独一无二的角色,是其它Ｍ蛋白不能替代的。同时,生肌蛋白还是控制烟碱样乙酰胆碱受体（ｎＡＣｈＲ）基因表达必不可少的转录调节因子。生肌蛋白的上述调节功能受蛋白激酶Ｃ（ＰＫＣ）催化的磷酸化反应调节,参与质膜－ＰＫＣ－受体基因级联反应。     

非神经元型胆碱能系统在（前）脂肪细胞的表达及nAChRα7功能状态对前脂肪细胞Visfatin基因表达的影响

原核生物、真核生物、植物体的非神经细胞和组织中,尤其是多种免疫活性细胞中,均证实乙酰胆碱酯酶（acetylcholinesterase,AChE）、胆碱乙酰转移酶（choline acetyltransferase,ChAT）和乙酰胆碱受体（acetylcholine receptor, AChR）各亚型在内的胆碱能系统组分的存在,其中烟碱样乙酰胆碱受体α7（nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α7,nAChRα7）是烟碱样胆碱能抗炎通路（nicotinic anti-inflammatory pathway）中重要的分子核心机制,同时也是机体限制宿主防御反应扩大的内源性抗炎机制之一. 本文旨在探讨（前）脂肪细胞上非神经元型胆碱能系统是否存在及初步揭示烟碱样胆碱能受体α7对前脂肪细胞功能的影响. 以体外培养的3T3-L1前脂肪细胞为研究对象,采用免疫组化和蛋白质免疫印迹技术,分别检测前脂肪细胞和成熟脂肪细胞中乙酰胆碱酯酶、胆碱乙酰转移酶和烟碱样乙酰胆碱受体α7的3种胆碱能系统主要组分的蛋白表达. 另将前脂肪细胞分为给予广谱烟碱样乙酰胆碱受体激动剂尼古丁、特异性烟碱样乙酰胆碱受体α7激动剂氯化胆碱及特异性烟碱样乙酰胆碱受体α7拮抗剂甲基牛扁亭碱干预12 h、24 h、36 h,并设立相应处理时间的空白对照组,逆转录聚合酶链反应检测前脂肪细胞visfatin mRNA表达情况. 免疫组化染色可见前脂肪细胞中AChE、ChAT及AChRα7均有阳性表达;蛋白免疫印迹检测进一步半定量证实了前脂肪细胞和成熟脂肪细胞中AChE、ChAT及AChRα7的蛋白表达;拮抗剂甲基牛扁亭碱(10⁶～10⁴mol/L)时间、剂量依赖性上调前脂肪细胞visfatin mRNA表达(1.3～1.55fold,P<0.01),与对应空白对照组相比,存在显著性统计学差异; 加入不同剂量的尼古丁和氯化胆碱,则前脂肪细胞中visfatin mRNA表达水平与对应空白对照组相比,均不同程度地下降,其中以氯化胆碱的抑制效应更为显著. 前脂肪细胞与成熟脂肪细胞中均存在有独立的胆碱能体系,其中AChRα7很可能在调节脂肪细胞因子分泌及肥胖相关的病理生理过程中发挥重要作用.     

ErbB3和ErbB4特异性配体筛选系统的建立及neuregulin-1突变体的筛选

Neuregulin-1(NRG1,纽兰格林)通过活化ErbB2/ErbB4二聚体具有治疗心衰的作用,目前已完成临床二期。为避免作为心衰治疗药物时同时激活ErbB3并产生副作用,因此用NRG1变异体的方法寻找能对ErbB4专一性激活的配体。文章构建了带有不同筛选标记的ErbB2、ErbB3、ErbB4细胞表达质粒,将ErbB2/ErbB3、ErbB2/ErbB4质粒共转染至CHO细胞,建立了ErbB2/ErbB3特异性表达和ErbB2/ErbB4特异性表达的细胞株。通过与新生大鼠原代心肌细胞比较,证明ErbB2/ErbB4细胞株信号传导功能与心肌细胞相似,NRG1可以激活下游的AKT信号途径、PI3K信号途径,并表现出良好的剂量效应。因此可以通过检测与心肌功能密切相关的下游信号AKT磷酸化水平快速筛选抗心衰药物,并通过与ErbB2/ErbB3信号激活水平比较鉴定其对心肌细胞的特异性。文章还构建了31个不同的NRG1突变体并在大肠杆菌中成功的表达和纯化。将这些突变体用于刺激两个细胞株,通过检测AKT磷酸化水平,发现这些突变体对ErbB2/ErbB3与ErbB2/ErbB4受体的激活能力不同。进一步检测其中5个ErbB2/ErbB4激活特异性发生改变的突变体与两对受体的亲和力,发现这些突变体和ErbB2/ErbB4与ErbB2/ErbB3受体亲和力的变化有一致性。最终筛选到了4个可以更特异性激活ErbB2/ErbB4受体的突变体作为更有效治疗心衰的候选药物。     

Heregulin-α及其受体在小鼠乳腺中的表达与作用

为阐明Heregulin-α（HRG-α）及其受体对乳腺发育、泌乳及退化的调控作用及其机制,本实验采用激光扫描共聚焦显微技术,组织培养,毛细管电泳,Western Blot,ELISA等方法对小鼠乳腺发育、泌乳及退化阶段HRG-α及其受体ErbB2和ErbB3的表达、定位及其对乳腺形态发育、β-酪蛋白表达和分泌、Rab3A蛋白表达、HRG-α信号转导途径信号分子的磷酸化状态的影响进行了系统研究．结果表明,HRG-α及其受体ErbB2,ErbB3在妊娠期15d乳腺中表达到达高峰,退化期9d时又出现另一小高峰;HRG-α及其受体ErbB2,ErbB3主要在乳腺脂肪细胞、导管上皮细胞以及围绕导管的基膜中检测到,在青春期、妊娠期和退化期呈特异性表达;ErbB2和ErbB3的表达变化趋势与HRG-α的表达变化趋势相似,呈显著线性正相关．妊娠期,HRG-α能够促进STAT5,p42／p44,p38和PKC的磷酸化以及Rab3A蛋白表达,刺激乳腺上皮细胞的增殖和分化,增加并维持β-酪蛋白的表达和分泌;泌乳期,HRG-α能够促进STAT5,p38的磷酸化并抑制PKC磷酸化和Rab3A蛋白表达,维持泌乳期乳腺形态,促进乳蛋白的分泌而使乳腺上皮细胞内β-酪蛋白的表达量相对减少;退化期,HRG-α能够促进STAT3磷酸化和Rab3A蛋白表达并抑制PKC的磷酸化,启动乳腺上皮细胞退化,抑制β-酪蛋白的分泌导致乳腺上皮细胞内β-酪蛋白表达量相对增加。     

秋水仙素对大鼠神经肌肉接头传递的作用

在不均匀牵拉法固定的离体大鼠膈神经膈肌标本上,用秋水仙素探讨了突触后膜的微管在神经肌肉接头乙酰胆碱受体兴奋中的作用。秋水仙素使小终板电位的幅度下降;使串刺激(10Hz,50Hz)诱发的平均终板电位幅度和平均量子含量减少;并使有神经支配的膈肌终板区乙酰胆碱电位幅度降低;但不影响膜电位、小终板电位的频率及终板电位和乙酰胆碱电位的时程。结果表明该药对神经肌肉接头乙酰胆碱受体的兴奋有抑制作用。而其同分异构体光化秋水仙素则无此作用。据此本文提出突触后膜下的微管可能参与神经肌肉接头乙酰胆碱受体的反应过程。     

下坡跑后大鼠腓肠肌成肌调节因子的变化

目的:探讨成肌调节因子(MyoD)在肌肉损伤修复过程中的动态表达,为促进运动肌肉损伤的再生修复提供实验依据。方法:将健康雄性2月龄SD大鼠80只,随机分为对照组(n=10)和下坡运动组(n=70),下坡运动组再分为运动后即刻组、12h、24h、48h、72h、7d和14d组,各运动组动物均进行持续性下坡跑,分别在运动结束后8个时间点麻醉,下腔静脉取血,分离血清,取双侧腓肠肌。常规检测CK、LDH的活性。采用免疫组织化学染色法以及计算机图像分析技术定量统计MyoD因子表达情况。结果:血清CK、LDH在运动后即刻显著上升,后逐渐下降至正常水平。成肌调节因子MyoD在正常骨骼肌中即有表达,各运动组大鼠腓肠肌MyoD因子表达较对照组均有增加,48h组大鼠腓肠肌MyoD免疫阳性细胞核数明显多于对照组(P0.05),后随时间逐渐下降。结论:离心运动后即刻MyoD的表达水平开始上升,48h达到峰值,随后逐渐下降至正常水平。提示成年早期大鼠(2月龄)已具备较成熟的肌肉再生修复能力。     

肌肉特异性激酶基因的克隆、表达和纯化

目的:克隆小鼠肌肉特异性激酶(muscle-specific kinase,MuSK)基因,原核表达、纯化MuSK蛋白。方法:获取编号AY360453的小鼠肌肉特异性激酶的基因编码序列进行优化和合成,将得到的目的基因构建于大肠杆菌表达载体pQE30中,获得重组表达载体pQE30-MuSK,转化至大肠杆菌菌株M15中表达,SDS-PAGE凝胶电泳检测是否有目的蛋白条带,MuSK酶联免疫分析试剂盒检测目的蛋白的免疫活性及其含量。结果:获得MuSK基因1.4kb片段,成功构建pQE30-MuSK原核表达载体,MuSK蛋白在大肠杆菌中成功表达,相对分子质量约为48kDa,Elisa试剂盒测得样品中MuSK的含量约为8.2pmol/L。结论:利用分子克隆技术建立了MuSK基因的原核表达系统,为更深入的研究其在重症肌无力中的作用打下基础。     

联合IFN-α与U0126的抗EV-A71作用及其机制研究

目的在细胞学水平明确IFN-α和胞外信号调节激酶(extracellular signal-regulated kinase, ERK)通路抑制剂U0126联合用药对肠道病毒A71(EV-A71)感染的作用及其可能机制。方法利用病毒致细胞病变效应、病毒终点滴定实验以及Western blot,确定IFN-α和U0126联合用药对EV-A71抗病毒效果,对细胞干扰素(interferon, IFN)受体及其下游信号通路重要蛋白水平、ERK通路活性的影响。结果 IFN-α和U0126联合用药能有效发挥抗EV-A71增殖的作用(P0.01),同时也能有效抑制ERK通路磷酸化活性、阻断EV-A71 2A~(pro)介导的I型干扰素受体1(interferon alpha receptor 1, IFNAR1)表达水平下调(P0.001),并上调IFN信号通路重要分子eIF2α磷酸化(P0.001)。此外,利用ERK抑制剂(U0126和sorafenib)或特异性siRNA分别阻断ERK磷酸化活性后,可显著阻断肠道病毒2A~(pro)介导的eIF4GI切割和IFNAR1表达下调的作用,同时受染细胞EV-A71复制也显著下降。结论 IFN-α和U0126联合用药可通过有效地抑制ERK通路,抑制2A~(pro)依赖的切割eIF4GI和下调IFNAR1表达的作用,使得外源IFN-α能更有效与细胞膜上IFNAR结合,有效激活IFN抗病毒信号通路,从而发挥IFN抗EV-A71蛋白翻译及增殖作用。     

烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体参与乙酰胆碱调控的气孔运动

动物细胞中 ,乙酰胆碱功能的发挥要求乙酰胆碱受体的参与 ,烟碱型受体的激活剂可以直接影响膜对离子的通透性 .在乙酰胆碱诱导的气孔开放过程中 ,可能同样涉及到烟碱型受体的作用 ,药理学的证据表明烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体参与乙酰胆碱调控的气孔运动 ,而且烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体介导的气孔开放与介质中的离子组成密切相关 ,只有在含K⁺的介质中烟碱才可以诱导气孔开放而在含Ca^{2 +}的介质中没有作用 ;同样 ,烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体的抑制剂只有在含K⁺的介质中才能抑制乙酰胆碱诱导的气孔开放 .进一步利用荧光定位技术证明烟碱型受体存在于蚕豆气孔保卫细胞中 ,而且主要分布在保卫细胞原生质体的表面 .免疫印迹实验初步证明在保卫细胞原生质体的微粒体中存在着能与动物烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体的α和β亚基发生免疫交叉反应的蛋白条带 .以上结果表明烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体存在于保卫细胞中 ,而且介导了乙酰胆碱诱导的气孔在含K+介质中的开放 .     

Agrin binds to the N-terminal region of Lrp4 protein and stimulates association between Lrp4 and the first immunoglobulin-like domain in muscle-specific kinase (MuSK)

Neuromuscular synapse formation depends upon coordinated interactions between motor neurons and muscle fibers, leading to the formation of a highly specialized postsynaptic membrane and a highly differentiated nerve terminal. Synapse formation begins as motor axons approach muscles that are prepatterned in the prospective synaptic region in a manner that depends upon Lrp4, a member of the LDL receptor family, and muscle-specific kinase (MuSK), a receptor tyrosine kinase. Motor axons supply Agrin, which binds Lrp4 and stimulates further MuSK phosphorylation, stabilizing nascent synapses. How Agrin binds Lrp4 and stimulates MuSK kinase activity is poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that Agrin binds to the N-terminal region of Lrp4, including a subset of the LDLa repeats and the first of four β-propeller domains, which promotes association between Lrp4 and MuSK and stimulates MuSK kinase activity. In addition, we show that Agrin stimulates the formation of a functional complex between Lrp4 and MuSK on the surface of myotubes in the absence of the transmembrane and intracellular domains of Lrp4. Further, we demonstrate that the first Ig-like domain in MuSK, which shares homology with the NGF-binding region in Tropomyosin Receptor Kinase (TrKA), is required for MuSK to bind Lrp4. These findings suggest that Lrp4 is a cis-acting ligand for MuSK, whereas Agrin functions as an allosteric and paracrine regulator to promote association between Lrp4 and MuSK.     

Lrp4 is a receptor for Agrin and forms a complex with MuSK

Neuromuscular synapse formation requires a complex exchange of signals between motor neurons and skeletal muscle fibers, leading to the accumulation of postsynaptic proteins, including acetylcholine receptors in the muscle membrane and specialized release sites, or active zones in the presynaptic nerve terminal. MuSK, a receptor tyrosine kinase that is expressed in skeletal muscle, and Agrin, a motor neuron-derived ligand that stimulates MuSK phosphorylation, play critical roles in synaptic differentiation, as synapses do not form in their absence, and mutations in MuSK or downstream effectors are a major cause of a group of neuromuscular disorders, termed congenital myasthenic syndromes (CMS). How Agrin activates MuSK and stimulates synaptic differentiation is not known and remains a fundamental gap in our understanding of signaling at neuromuscular synapses. Here, we report that Lrp4, a member of the LDLR family, is a receptor for Agrin, forms a complex with MuSK, and mediates MuSK activation by Agrin.     

A novel pathway for MuSK to induce key genes in neuromuscular synapse formation

At the developing neuromuscular junction the Agrin receptor MuSK is the central organizer of subsynaptic differentiation induced by Agrin from the nerve. The expression of musk itself is also regulated by the nerve, but the mechanisms involved are not known. Here, we analyzed the activation of a musk promoter reporter construct in muscle fibers in vivo and in cultured myotubes, using transfection of multiple combinations of expression vectors for potential signaling components. We show that neuronal Agrin by activating MuSK regulates the expression of musk via two pathways: the Agrin-induced assembly of muscle-derived neuregulin (NRG)-1/ErbB, the pathway thought to regulate acetylcholine receptor (AChR) expression at the synapse, and via a direct shunt involving Agrin-induced activation of Rac. Both pathways converge onto the same regulatory element in the musk promoter that is also thought to confer synapse-specific expression to AChR subunit genes. In this way, a positive feedback signaling loop is established that maintains musk expression at the synapse when impulse transmission becomes functional. The same pathways are used to regulate synaptic expression of AChR epsilon. We propose that the novel pathway stabilizes the synapse early in development, whereas the NRG/ErbB pathway supports maintenance of the mature synapse.     

Lrp4 Domains Differentially Regulate Limb/Brain Development and Synaptic Plasticity

Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) genotype is the strongest predictor of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) risk. ApoE is a cholesterol transport protein that binds to members of the Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) Receptor family, which includes LDL Receptor Related Protein 4 (Lrp4). Lrp4, together with one of its ligands Agrin and its co-receptors Muscle Specific Kinase (MuSK) and Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP), regulates neuromuscular junction (NMJ) formation. All four proteins are also expressed in the adult brain, and APP, MuSK, and Agrin are required for normal synapse function in the CNS. Here, we show that Lrp4 is also required for normal hippocampal plasticity. In contrast to the closely related Lrp8/Apoer2, the intracellular domain of Lrp4 does not appear to be necessary for normal expression and maintenance of long-term potentiation at central synapses or for the formation and maintenance of peripheral NMJs. However, it does play a role in limb development.     

Association of muscle-specific kinase MuSK with the acetylcholine receptor in mammalian muscle.

During synaptogenesis at the neuromuscular junction, a neurally released factor, agrin, causes the clustering of acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) in the muscle membrane beneath the nerve terminal. Agrin acts through a specific receptor which is thought to have a receptor tyrosine kinase, MuSK, as one of its components. In agrin-treated muscle cells, both MuSK and the AChR become tyrosine phosphorylated. To determine how the activation of MuSK leads to AChR clustering, we have investigated their interaction in cultured C2 myotubes. Immunoprecipitation experiments showed that MuSK is associated with the AChR and that this association is increased by agrin treatment. Agrin also caused a transient activation of the AChR-associated MuSK, as demonstrated by MuSK phosphorylation. In agrin-treated myotubes, MuSK phosphorylation increased with the same time course as phosphorylation of the beta subunit of the AChR, but declined more quickly. Although both herbimycin and staurosporine blocked agrin-induced AChR phosphorylation, only herbimycin inhibited the phosphorylation of MuSK. These results suggest that although agrin increases the amount of activated MuSK that is associated with the AChR, MuSK is not directly responsible for AChR phosphorylation but acts through other kinases.     

Modulation of Agrin-induced Acetylcholine Receptor Clustering by Extracellular Signal-regulated Kinases 1 and 2 in Cultured Myotubes

Agrin released by motoneurons induces and/or maintains acetylcholine receptor (AChR) clustering and other aspects of postsynaptic differentiation at the vertebrate neuromuscular junction. Agrin acts by binding and activating a receptor complex containing LDL receptor protein 4 (Lrp4) and muscle-specific kinase (MuSK). Two critical downstream components of this signaling cascade, Dox-7 and rapsyn, have been identified. However, additional intracellular essential elements remain unknown. Prior observations by others and us suggested antagonistic interactions between agrin and neuregulin-1 (Nrg-1) signaling in cultured myotubes and developing muscle fibers in vivo. A hallmark of Nrg-1 signaling in skeletal muscle cells is the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2). ERK1/2 are also activated in most cells by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, a classical inhibitor of agrin-induced AChR clustering in myotubes. Here, it was investigated whether agrin activates ERK1/2 directly and whether such activation modulates agrin-induced AChR clustering. Agrin induced a rapid but transient activation of ERK1/2 in myotubes that was Lrp4/MuSK-dependent. However, blocking this ERK1/2 activation did not prevent but potentiated AChR clustering induced by agrin. ERK1/2 activation was dispensable for Nrg-1-mediated inhibition of the AChR clustering activity of agrin, but was indispensable for such activity by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate. Together, these results suggest agrin-induced activation of ERK1/2 is a negative modulator of agrin signaling in skeletal muscle cells.     

Relative Contribution of Nerve Endings to the Release of Adenine Nucleotides in the Innervated from Sartorius Muscle

Abstract

An evoked release of adenine nucleotides was observed at the frog innervated satorius muscle, at least one third coming from nerve endings. Coformycin and α,β-methylene A DP inhibited the hydrolysis of endogenously formed AMP as well as of exogenoudy added ANP.     

The juxtamembrane region of MuSK has a critical role in agrin-mediated signaling

MuSK is a receptor tyrosine kinase expressed selectively in skeletal muscle and localized to neuromuscular synapses. Agrin activates MuSK and stimulates phosphorylation and clustering of acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) at synaptic sites. We expressed wild-type or mutant MuSK in MuSK(-/-) myotubes and identified tyrosine residues in the MuSK cytoplasmic domain that are necessary for agrin-stimulated phosphorylation and clustering of AChRs. The activation loop tyrosines and the single juxtamembrane tyrosine were found to be essential for agrin-stimulated phosphorylation and clustering of AChRs. Further, we show that the juxtamembrane tyrosine, contained within an NPXY motif, is phosphorylated in vivo by agrin stimulation. We constructed chimeras containing extracellular and transmembrane domains from MuSK and cytoplasmic sequences from TrkA and found that inclusion of 13 amino acids from the MuSK juxtamembrane region, including the NPXY motif, is sufficient to convert a phosphorylated but inactive MuSK-TrkA chimera into a phosphorylated active chimera. These data suggest that phosphorylation of the MuSK NPXY site leads to recruitment of a phosphotyrosine-binding domain-containing protein that functions to stimulate phosphorylation and clustering of AChRs.     

Mesdc2 plays a key role in cell-surface expression of Lrp4 and postsynaptic specialization in myotubes

Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 4 (Lrp4) is essential for pre- and post-synaptic specialization at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), an indispensable synapse between a motor nerve and skeletal muscle. Muscle-specific receptor tyrosine kinase MuSK must form a complex with Lrp4 to organize postsynaptic specialization at NMJs. Here, we show that the chaperon Mesdc2 binds to the intracellular form of Lrp4 and promotes its glycosylation and cell-surface expression. Furthermore, knockdown of Mesdc2 suppresses cell-surface expression of Lrp4, activation of MuSK, and postsynaptic specialization in muscle cells. These results suggest that Mesdc2 plays an essential role in NMJ formation by promoting Lrp4 maturation.