Caveolin-1 phosphorylation is required for stretch-induced EGFR and Akt activation in mesangial cells

Increased glomerular hydrostatic pressure is an important determinant of glomerulosclerosis and can be modeled in vitro by exposure of mesangial cells (MC) to cyclic mechanical strain. We have recently shown that Akt mediates the stretch-induced production of type I collagen, an important contributor to sclerosis, in MC. Here we studied the upstream mediators of Akt activation. Primary rat MC were exposed to 1 Hz cyclic strain for 10 min, previously shown to induce maximal Akt activation. Neither the integrin inhibitor GRDGSP nor cytoskeletal disruptors had any effect on stretch-induced Akt activation. Akt activation was, however, mediated by transactivation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and this required receptor kinase activity since Akt activation did not occur in cells expressing kinase-dead EGFR (K721A). Src was further shown to be upstream of the EGFR, with its inhibitor SU6656 preventing both EGFR and Akt activation. The membrane microdomains caveolae were found to be required for this signaling to occur. Chemical disruption of caveolae with cyclodextrin or filipin prevented Akt activation, and both EGFR and Akt activation were lost in caveolin-1 (cav-1) knockout MC. The latter was rescued with reexpression of cav-1. Further, Src-mediated phosphorylation of cav-1 on Y14 was required for stretch-induced EGFR and Akt activation, since these were abrogated in MC expressing the nonphosphorylatable cav-1 Y14A mutant. Thus, mechanical strain-induced activation of Akt in MC is independent of integrin activation and the actin cytoskeleton, but depends upon EGFR transactivation. EGFR transactivation requires intact caveolae and the Src-mediated phosphorylation of cav-1 on Y14. These studies define a novel function for cav-1 and caveolae in EGFR transactivation leading to Akt activation by mechanical stress.     

Tension on JAM-A activates RhoA via GEF-H1 and p115 RhoGEF

Junctional adhesion molecule A (JAM-A) is a broadly expressed adhesion molecule that regulates cell–cell contacts and facilitates leukocyte transendothelial migration. The latter occurs through interactions with the integrin LFA-1. Although we understand much about JAM-A, little is known regarding the protein’s role in mechanotransduction or as a modulator of RhoA signaling. We found that tension imposed on JAM-A activates RhoA, which leads to increased cell stiffness. Activation of RhoA in this system depends on PI3K-mediated activation of GEF-H1 and p115 RhoGEF. These two GEFs are further regulated by FAK/ERK and Src family kinases, respectively. Finally, we show that phosphorylation of JAM-A at Ser-284 is required for RhoA activation in response to tension. These data demonstrate a direct role of JAM-A in mechanosignaling and control of RhoA and implicate Src family kinases in the regulation of p115 RhoGEF.     

HIV-1 Nef disrupts the podocyte actin cytoskeleton by interacting with diaphanous interacting protein

The ability of the human immunodeficiency virus, type 1 (HIV-1) protein Nef to induce cytoskeleton changes in infected host cells is a key event in viral replication. In renal podocytes, we found that Nef induced loss of stress fibers and increased lamellipodia, pathological changes leading to proteinuria in HIV-associated nephropathy. These morphological changes were mediated by Nef-induced Rac1 activation and RhoA inhibition. We identified a new interaction between Nef and diaphanous interacting protein (DIP), a recently described regulator of Rho and Rac signaling. We found that the Src homology 3 binding domain of DIP and the Nef PXXP motif were required for this interaction. Nef also interacts with Vav2 in podocytes. DIP and Vav2 both interact directly with Nef in a competitive manner. DIP interacts with p190RhoGAP, and intact DIP was required for Nef-induced phosphorylation of p190RhoGAP. DIP also interacts with Vav2, and although DIP enhanced baseline phosphorylation of Vav2, it was not required for Nef-induced Vav2 activation. In Nef-infected podocytes, Src kinase induces phosphorylation of DIP, p190RhoGAP, and Vav2, leading to RhoA inhibition and Rac1 activation. Inhibition of the Nef-induced signaling pathway by using a dominant negative of either Src or DIP or siRNA for DIP or p190RhoAGAP restored RhoA activity and stress fiber formation in Nef-infected podocytes, whereas siRNA for Vav2 reduced Rac1 activity and formation of lamellipodia. We conclude that in HIV-infected podocytes, Nef, through the recruitment of DIP and p190RhoAGAP to Nef-Src complex, activates p190RhoAGAP and down-regulates RhoA activity.     

The epidermal growth factor receptor mediates tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced activation of the ERK/GEF-H1/RhoA pathway in tubular epithelium

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α induces cytoskeleton and intercellular junction remodeling in tubular epithelial cells; the underlying mechanisms, however, are incompletely explored. We have previously shown that ERK-mediated stimulation of the RhoA GDP/GTP exchange factor GEF-H1/Lfc is critical for TNF-α-induced RhoA stimulation. Here we investigated the upstream mechanisms of ERK/GEF-H1 activation. Surprisingly, TNF-α-induced ERK and RhoA stimulation in tubular cells were prevented by epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibition or silencing. TNF-α also enhanced phosphorylation of the EGFR. EGF treatment mimicked the effects of TNF-α, as it elicited potent, ERK-dependent GEF-H1 and RhoA activation. Moreover, EGF-induced RhoA activation was prevented by GEF-H1 silencing, indicating that GEF-H1 is a key downstream effector of the EGFR. The TNF-α-elicited EGFR, ERK, and RhoA stimulation were mediated by the TNF-α convertase enzyme (TACE) that can release EGFR ligands. Further, EGFR transactivation also required the tyrosine kinase Src, as Src inhibition prevented TNF-α-induced activation of the EGFR/ERK/GEF-H1/RhoA pathway. Importantly, a bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation assay and electric cell substrate impedance-sensing (ECIS) measurements revealed that TNF-α stimulated cell growth in an EGFR-dependent manner. In contrast, TNF-α-induced NFκB activation was not prevented by EGFR or Src inhibition, suggesting that TNF-α exerts both EGFR-dependent and -independent effects. In summary, in the present study we show that the TNF-α-induced activation of the ERK/GEF-H1/RhoA pathway in tubular cells is mediated through Src- and TACE-dependent EGFR activation. Such a mechanism could couple inflammatory and proliferative stimuli and, thus, may play a key role in the regulation of wound healing and fibrogenesis.     

Activation of Rac1 by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase in vivo: role in activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways and retinoic acid-induced neuronal differentiation of SH-SY5Y cells

Rho GTPases such as RhoA, Rac1 and Cdc42 are crucial players in the regulation of signal transduction pathways required for neuronal differentiation. Using an in vitro cell culture model of neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells, we demonstrated previously that RhoA is an in vivo substrate of tissue transglutaminase (TGase) and retinoic acid (RA) promoted activation of RhoA by transamidation. Although activation of RhoA promoted cytoskeletal rearrangement in SH-SY5Y cells, it was not involved in induction of neurite outgrowth. Here, we demonstrate that RA promotes activation of Rac1 in SH-SY5Y cells in a transamidation-independent manner. RA-induced activation of Rac1 is mediated by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), probably because of phosphorylation of the p85 regulatory subunit by Src kinases. Over-expression of constitutively active PI3K or Rac1-V12 induces neurite outgrowth, activation of mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and expression of neuronal markers. The PI3K inhibitor LY294002, or over-expression of dominant negative Rac1-N17, blocks RA-induced neurite outgrowth, activation of MAPKs, and expression of neuronal markers, suggesting that activation of PI3K/Rac1 signaling represents a potential mechanism for regulation of neuronal differentiation in SH-SY5Y cells.     

Epidermal growth factor-dependent regulation of Cdc42 is mediated by the Src tyrosine kinase

Treatment of cells with epidermal growth factor (EGF) promotes the activation of the small GTP-binding protein Cdc42, as well as its phosphorylation in cells. The EGF-dependent phosphorylation of Cdc42 occurs at tyrosine 64 in the Switch II domain and appears to be mediated through the Src tyrosine kinase, because both the expression of a dominant-negative Src mutant (mouse Src(K297R)) and treatment of cells with the Src kinase inhibitor PP2 blocks the EGF-stimulated phosphorylation of Cdc42, whereas expression of an activated Src mutant (Src(Y529F)) promotes phosphorylation in the absence of EGF treatment. The EGF-stimulated phosphorylation of Cdc42 is not required for its activation, nor does it directly affect the interactions of activated Cdc42 with target/effector proteins including PAK, ACK, WASP, or IQGAP. However, the EGF-stimulated phosphorylation of Cdc42 is accompanied by an enhancement in the interaction of Cdc42 with the Rho-GDP dissociation inhibitor (RhoGDI). The EGF-stimulated activation of Cdc42 does require activated Src, as well as the Vav2 protein, a member of the Dbl family of guanine nucleotide exchange factors. Src catalyzes the tyrosine phosphorylation of Vav2, and overexpression of Vav2 together with activated Src (Src(Y529F)) can completely bypass the need for EGF to promote the activation of Cdc42. Thus, EGF signaling through Src appears to have dual regulatory effects on Cdc42: 1). it leads to the activation of Cdc42 as mediated by the Vav2 guanine nucleotide exchange factor, and 2). it results in the phosphorylation of Cdc42, which stimulates the binding of RhoGDI, perhaps to direct the movement of Cdc42 to a specific cellular site to trigger a signaling response, because Cdc42-RhoGDI interactions are essential for Cdc42-induced cellular transformation.     

The EGF receptor activates ERK but not JNK Ras-dependently in basal conditions but ERK and JNK activation pathways are predominantly Ras-independent during cardiomyocyte stretch

Myocardial stretch is a major determinant of ventricular hypertrophy, a physiological adaptational process that can be detrimental, leading to heart failure. Therapies aimed to limit the development of cardiac hypertrophy are thus currently evaluated. Among possible targets, the small G protein Ras and the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) have been shown to be involved during stretch but their precise role in the activation of the major actors of hypertrophy, the mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPK) ERK and JNK is not well known. Our goal was thus was to evaluate precisely the activation pathways of ERK and JNK during stretch, with an emphasis on the role of the EGFR. For this purpose, neonatal rat cardiomyocytes in culture were stretched for different time durations. As measured by Western blot of their phosphorylated forms, ERK and JNK were activated by stretch. Ras inhibition decreased basal ERK phosphorylation but had no effect on stretch-induced ERK activation. Under basal conditions, EGFR activated ERK in a classical Ras-dependent manner. Upon stretch, EGFR transactivation activated ERK through both Ras-dependent and Ras-independent pathways. Interestingly, we also show that the Akt pathway participates in stretch-induced ERK activation with an involvement of EGFR. Unlike ERK, JNK activation is independent of either EGFR or PI3 kinase but dependent on other tyrosine kinases. In conclusion these data show different Ras-dependent and Ras-independent pathways in basal conditions and during stretch with a previously unrecognized role of Akt in the activation of ERK.     

Collagen phagocytosis is regulated by the guanine nucleotide exchange factor Vav2

Collagen phagocytosis is a crucial alpha2beta1-integrin-dependent process that mediates extracellular matrix remodeling by fibroblasts. We showed previously that after initial contact with collagen, activated Rac1 accelerates collagen phagocytosis but the Rac guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) that regulate Rac are not defined. We examined here the GEFs that regulate collagen phagocytosis in mouse fibroblasts. Collagen binding enhanced Rac1 activity (5-20 min) but not Cdc42 or RhoA activity. Analysis of collagen bead-associated proteins showed enrichment with Vav2, which correlated temporally with increased Rac1 activity. Knockdown of Vav2 prevented Rac activation, recruitment of Rac1 to collagen bead binding sites, and collagen bead binding, but knockdown of Sos-1 or beta-Pix had no effect on Rac activation or collagen binding. Vav2 was associated with the nucleotide-free Rac1 mutant (G15ARac1) after collagen binding. Collagen bead binding promoted phosphorylation of Vav2, which temporally correlated with Rac1 activation and which required Src kinase activity. Blockage of Src activity prevented collagen bead-induced Rac activation and collagen bead binding. Collectively these data indicate that Vav2 regulates the Rac1 activity associated with the binding step of collagen phagocytosis.     

RhoA/ROCK signaling is critical to FAK activation by cyclic stretch in cardiac myocytes

Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) has been shown to be activated in cardiac myocytes exposed to mechanical stress. However, details of how mechanical stimuli induce FAK activation are unknown. We investigated whether signaling events mediated by the RhoA/Rho-associated coiled coil-containing kinase (ROCK) pathway are involved in regulation of stretch-induced FAK phosphorylation at Tyr(397) in neonatal rat ventricular myocytes (NRVMs). Immunostaining showed that RhoA localized to regions of myofilaments alternated with phalloidin (actin) staining. The results of coimmunoprecipitation assays indicated that FAK and RhoA are associated in nonstretched NRVMs, but cyclic stretch significantly reduced the amount of RhoA recovered from anti-FAK immunoprecipitates. Cyclic stretch induced rapid and sustained (up to 2 h) increases in phosphorylation of FAK at Tyr(397) and ERK1/2 at Thr(202)/Tyr(204). Blockade of RhoA/ROCK signaling by pharmacological inhibitors of RhoA (Clostridium botulinum C3 exoenzyme) or ROCK (Y-27632, 10 micromol/l, 1 h) markedly attenuated stretch-induced FAK and ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Similar effects were observed in cells treated with the inhibitor of actin polymerization cytochalasin D. Transfection of NRVMs with RhoA antisense oligonucleotide attenuated stretch-induced FAK and ERK1/2 phosphorylation and expression of beta-myosin heavy chain mRNA. Similar results were seen in cells transfected with FAK antisense oligonucleotide. These findings demonstrate that RhoA/ROCK signaling plays a crucial role in stretch-induced FAK phosphorylation, presumably by coordinating upstream events operationally linked to the actin cytoskeleton.     

Mechanical stretch stimulates protein kinase B/Akt phosphorylation in epidermal cells via angiotensin II type 1 receptor and epidermal growth factor receptor

Mechanical stress is known to modulate fundamental events such as cell life and death. Mechanical stretch in particular has been identified as a positive regulator of proliferation in skin keratinocytes and other cell systems. In the present study it was investigated whether antiapoptotic signaling is also stimulated by mechanical stretch. It was demonstrated that mechanical stretch rapidly induced the phosphorylation of the proto-oncogene protein kinase B (PKB)/Akt at both phosphorylation sites (serine 473/threonine 308) in different epithelial cells (HaCaT, A-431, and human embryonic kidney-293). Blocking of phosphoinositide 3-OH kinase by selective inhibitors (LY-294002 and wortmannin) abrogated the stretch-induced PKB/Akt phosphorylation. Furthermore mechanical stretch stimulated phosphorylation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and the formation of EGFR membrane clusters. Functional blocking of EGFR phosphorylation by either selective inhibitors (AG1478 and PD168393) or dominant-negative expression suppressed stretch-induced PKB/Akt phosphorylation. Finally, the angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1-R) was shown to induce positive transactivation of EGFR in response to cell stretch. These findings define a novel signaling pathway of mechanical stretch, namely the activation of PKB/Akt by transactivation of EGFR via angiotensin II type 1 receptor. Evidence is provided that stretch-induced activation of PKB/Akt protects cells against induced apoptosis.     

Stretch-induced retinal vascular endothelial growth factor expression is mediated by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and protein kinase C (PKC)-zeta but not by stretch-induced ERK1/2, Akt, Ras, or classical/novel PKC pathways.

Stretch-induced expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is thought to be important in mediating the exacerbation of diabetic retinopathy by systemic hypertension. However, the mechanisms underlying stretch-induced VEGF expression are not fully understood. We present novel findings demonstrating that stretch-induced VEGF expression in retinal capillary pericytes is mediated by phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase and protein kinase C (PKC)-zeta but is not mediated by ERK1/2, classical/novel isoforms of PKC, Akt, or Ras despite their activation by stretch. Cardiac profile cyclic stretch at 60 cpm increased VEGF mRNA expression in a time- and magnitude-dependent manner without altering mRNA stability. Stretch increased ERK1/2 phosphorylation, PI 3-kinase activity, Akt phosphorylation, and PKC-zeta activity. Signaling pathways were explored using inhibitors of PKC, MEK1/2, and PI 3-kinase; adenovirus-mediated overexpression of ERK, PKC-alpha, PKC-delta, PKC-zeta, and Akt; and dominant negative (DN) mutants of ERK, PKC-zeta, Ras, PI 3-kinase and Akt. Although stretch activated ERK1/2 through a Ras- and PKC classical/novel isoform-dependent pathway, these pathways were not responsible for stretch-induced VEGF expression. Overexpression of DN ERK and Ras had no effect on VEGF expression in these cells. In contrast, DN PI 3-kinase as well as pharmacologic inhibitors of PI 3-kinase blocked stretch-induced VEGF expression. Although stretch-induced PI 3-kinase activation increased both Akt phosphorylation and activity of PKC-zeta, VEGF expression was dependent on PKC-zeta but not Akt. In addition, PKC-zeta did not mediate stretch-induced ERK1/2 activation. These results suggest that stretch-induced expression of VEGF involves a novel mechanism dependent upon PI 3-kinase-mediated activation of PKC-zeta that is independent of stretch-induced activation of ERK1/2, classical/novel PKC isoforms, Ras, or Akt. This mechanism may play a role in the well documented association of concomitant hypertension with clinical exacerbation of neovascularization and vascular permeability.     

Bradykinin-induced p42/p44 MAPK phosphorylation and cell proliferation via Src, EGF receptors, and PI3-K/Akt in vascular smooth muscle cells

In our previous study, bradykinin (BK) exerts its mitogenic effect through Ras/Raf/MEK/MAPK pathway in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). In addition to this pathway, the non-receptor tyrosine kinases (Src), EGF receptor (EGFR), and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-K) have been implicated in linking a variety of G-protein coupled receptors to MAPK cascades. Here, we investigated whether these different mechanisms participating in BK-induced activation of p42/p44 MAPK and cell proliferation in VSMCs. We initially observed that BK- and EGF-dependent activation of Src, EGFR, Akt, and p42/p44 MAPK and [3H]thymidine incorporation were mediated by Src and EGFR, because the Src inhibitor PP1 and EGFR kinase inhibitor AG1478 abrogated BK- and EGF-dependent effects. Inhibition of PI3-K by LY294002 attenuated BK-induced Akt and p42/p44 MAPK phosphorylation and [3H]thymidine incorporation, but had no effect on EGFR phosphorylation, suggesting that EGFR may be an upstream component of PI3-K/Akt and MAPK in these responses. This hypothesis was supported by the tranfection with dominant negative plasmids of p85 and Akt which significantly attenuated BK-induced Akt and p42/p44 MAPK phosphorylation. Pretreatment with U0126 (a MEK1/2 inhibitor) attenuated the p42/p44 MAPK phosphorylation and [3H]thymidine incorporation stimulated by BK, but had no effect on Akt activation. Moreover, BK-induced transactivation of EGFR and cell proliferation was blocked by matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor GM6001. These results suggest that, in VSMCs, the mechanism of BK-stimulated activation of p42/p44 MAPK and cell proliferation was mediated, at least in part, through activation of Src family kinases, EGFR transactivation, and PI3-K/Akt.     

Mechanical stretch stimulates growth of vascular smooth muscle cells via epidermal growth factor receptor

We have studied whether activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is involved in stretch-induced extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) activation and protein synthesis in cultured rat vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). Cyclic stretch (1 Hz) induced a rapid (within 5 min) phosphorylation of ERK1/2, an effect that was time and strength dependent and inhibited by an EGFR kinase inhibitor (AG-1478) but not by a platelet-derived growth factor receptor kinase inhibitor (AG-1296). The stretch rapidly (within 2 min) induced tyrosine phosphorylation of several proteins, among which 180-kDa protein was shown to be EGFR as revealed by blockade with AG-1478 as well as immunoprecipitation with anti-EGFR antibody coupled with immunoblotting with anti-phosphotyrosine antibody. The stretch rapidly (within 2 min) induced association of tyrosine-phosphorylated EGFR with adaptor proteins (Shc/Grb2) as revealed by coprecipitation with glutathione-S-transferase-Grb2 fusion protein coupled with immunoblotting with anti-phosphotyrosine, anti-EGFR, and anti-Shc antibodies. Transfection of a dominant-negative mutant of H-Ras also inhibited stretch-induced ERK1/2 activation. Treatment with a stretch-activated ion channel blocker (Gd(3+)) and an intracellular Ca(2+) antagonist (TMB-8) inhibited stretch-induced phosphorylation of EGFR and ERK1/2. Treatment with AG-1478 and a mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase inhibitor (PD-98059), but not AG-1296, blocked [(3)H]leucine uptake stimulated by a high level of stretch. These data suggest that ERK1/2 activation by mechanical stretch requires Ca(2+)-sensitive EGFR activation mainly via stretch-activated ion channels, thereby leading to VSMC growth.     

The P2Y2 nucleotide receptor mediates vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression through interaction with VEGF receptor-2 (KDR/Flk-1)

UTP stimulates the expression of pro-inflammatory vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) in endothelial cells through activation of the P2Y(2) nucleotide receptor P2Y(2)R. Here, we demonstrated that activation of the P2Y(2)R induced rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR)-2 in human coronary artery endothelial cells (HCAEC). RNA interference targeting VEGFR-2 or inhibition of VEGFR-2 tyrosine kinase activity abolishes P2Y(2)R-mediated VCAM-1 expression. Furthermore, VEGFR-2 and the P2Y(2)R co-localize upon UTP stimulation. Deletion or mutation of two Src homology-3-binding sites in the C-terminal tail of the P2Y(2)R or inhibition of Src kinase activity abolished the P2Y(2)R-mediated transactivation of VEGFR-2 and subsequently inhibited UTP-induced VCAM-1 expression. Moreover, activation of VEGFR-2 by UTP leads to the phosphorylation of Vav2, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Rho family GTPases. Using a binding assay to measure the activity of the small GTPases Rho, we found that stimulation of HCAEC by UTP increased the activity of RhoA and Rac1 (but not Cdc42). Significantly, a dominant negative form of RhoA inhibited P2Y(2)R-mediated VCAM-1 expression, whereas expression of dominant negative forms of Cdc42 and Rac1 had no effect. These data indicate a novel mechanism whereby a nucleotide receptor transactivates a receptor tyrosine kinase to generate an inflammatory response associated with atherosclerosis.     

Mechanical stretch activates signaling events for protein translation initiation and elongation in C2C12 myoblasts

It has been proposed that mechanically induced tension is the critical factor in the induction of muscle hypertrophy. However, the molecular mechanisms involved in this process are still under investigation. In the present study, the effect of mechanical stretch on intracellular signaling for protein translation initiation and elongation was studied in C2C12 myoblasts. Cells were grown on a silicone elastomer chamber and subjected to 30-min of 5 or 15% constant static or cyclic (60 cycles/min) uniaxial stretch. Western blot analyses revealed that p70 S6 kinase (p70S6K) and eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2), which are the markers for translation initiation and peptide chain elongation, respectively, were activated by both static and cyclic stretch. The magnitude of activation was greater in response to the 15% cyclic stretch. Cyclic stretch also increased the phosphorylation of MAP kinases (p38 MAPK, ERK1/2 and JNK). However, the pharmacological inhibition of MAP kinases did not block the stretch-induced activation of p70S6K and eEF2. An inhibitor of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) blocked the stretch-induced phosphorylation of p70S6K but did not affect the eEF2 activation. A broad-range tyrosine kinase inhibitor, genistein, blocked the stretch-induced activation of p70S6K and eEF2, whereas Src tyrosine kinase and Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors did not. These results suggest that the stretch-induced activation of protein translation initiation and elongation in mouse myoblast cell lines is mediated by tyrosine kinase(s), except for Src kinase or JAK.     

Spatially restricted activation of RhoA signalling at epithelial junctions by p114RhoGEF drives junction formation and morphogenesis

Signalling by the GTPase RhoA, a key regulator of epithelial cell behaviour, can stimulate opposing processes: RhoA can promote junction formation and apical constriction, and reduce adhesion and cell spreading. Molecular mechanisms are thus required that ensure spatially restricted and process-specific RhoA activation. For many fundamental processes, including assembly of the epithelial junctional complex, such mechanisms are still unknown. Here we show that p114RhoGEF is a junction-associated protein that drives RhoA signalling at the junctional complex and regulates tight-junction assembly and epithelial morphogenesis. p114RhoGEF is required for RhoA activation at cell-cell junctions, and its depletion stimulates non-junctional Rho signalling and induction of myosin phosphorylation along the basal domain. Depletion of GEF-H1, a RhoA activator inhibited by junctional recruitment, does not reduce junction-associated RhoA activation. p114RhoGEF associates with a complex containing myosin II, Rock II and the junctional adaptor cingulin, indicating that p114RhoGEF is a component of a junction-associated Rho signalling module that drives spatially restricted activation of RhoA to regulate junction formation and epithelial morphogenesis.     

Focal adhesion kinase as a RhoA-activable signaling scaffold mediating Akt activation and cardiomyocyte protection

RhoA a small G-protein that has an established role in cell growth and in regulation of the actin cytoskeleton. Far less is known about whether RhoA can modulate cell fate. We previously reported that sustained RhoA activation induces cardiomyocyte apoptosis (Del Re, D. P., Miyamoto, S., and Brown, J. H. (2007) J. Biol. Chem. 282, 8069-8078). Here we demonstrate that less chronic RhoA activation affords a survival advantage, protecting cardiomyocytes from apoptotic insult induced by either hydrogen peroxide treatment or glucose deprivation. Under conditions where RhoA is protective, we observe Rho kinase-dependent cytoskeletal rearrangement and activation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK). Activation of endogenous cardiomyocyte FAK leads to its increased association with the p85 regulatory subunit of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) and to concomitant activation of Akt. Treatment of isolated perfused hearts with sphingosine 1-phosphate recapitulates this response. The pathway by which RhoA mediates cardiomyocyte Akt activation is demonstrated to require Rho kinase, FAK and PI3K, but not Src, based on studies with pharmacological inhibitors (Y-27632, LY294002, PF271 and PP2) and inhibitory protein expression (FAK-related nonkinase). Inhibition of RhoA-mediated Akt activation at any of these steps, including inhibition of FAK, prevents RhoA from protecting cardiomyocytes against apoptotic insult. We further demonstrate that stretch of cardiomyocytes, which activates endogenous RhoA, induces the aforementioned signaling pathway, providing a physiologic context in which RhoA-mediated FAK phosphorylation can activate PI3K and Akt. We suggest that RhoA-mediated effects on the cardiomyocyte cytoskeleton provide a novel mechanism for protection from apoptosis.     

EphrinB1 Interacts with CNK1 and Promotes Cell Migration through c-Jun N-terminal Kinase (JNK) Activation

The Eph receptors and their membrane-bound ligands, ephrins, play important roles in various biological processes such as cell adhesion and movement. The transmembrane ephrinBs transduce reverse signaling in a tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent or -independent, as well as PDZ-dependent manner. Here, we show that ephrinB1 interacts with Connector Enhancer of KSR1 (CNK1) in an EphB receptor-independent manner. In cultured cells, cotransfection of ephrinB1 with CNK1 increases JNK phosphorylation. EphrinB1/CNK1-mediated JNK activation is reduced by overexpression of dominant-negative RhoA. Overexpression of CNK1 alone is sufficient for activation of RhoA; however, both ephrinB1 and CNK1 are required for JNK phosphorylation. Co-immunoprecipitation data showed that ephrinB1 and CNK1 act as scaffold proteins that connect RhoA and JNK signaling components, such as p115RhoGEF and MKK4. Furthermore, adhesion to fibronectin or active Src overexpression increases ephrinB1/CNK1 binding, whereas blocking Src activity by a pharmacological inhibitor decreases not only ephrinB1/CNK1 binding, but also JNK activation. EphrinB1 overexpression increases cell motility, however, CNK1 depletion by siRNA abrogates ephrinB1-mediated cell migration and JNK activation. Moreover, Rho kinase inhibitor or JNK inhibitor treatment suppresses ephrinB1-mediated cell migration. Taken together, our findings suggest that CNK1 is required for ephrinB1-induced JNK activation and cell migration.     

Stretch-induced cell proliferation is mediated by FAK-MAPK pathway

Previously we reported that a uni-axial cyclic stretch treatment of rat 3Y1 fibroblasts induced focal adhesion kinase (FAK) tyrosine phosphorylation followed by mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation (Wang et al., 2001) [Wang, J.G., Miyazu, M., Matsushita, E., Sokabe, M., Naruse, K., 2001. Uni-axial cyclic stretch induces focal adhesion kinase (FAK) tyrosine phosphorylation followed by mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 288, 356-361]. In the present study, we investigated whether stretch-induced MAPK activation leads to proliferation of fibroblasts. 3Y1 fibroblasts were subjected to a uni-axial cyclic stretch treatment (1 Hz, 120% in length) and the bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation was measured to access cell proliferation. BrdU incorporation increased in a time-dependent manner and became significant within 6 hours. To investigate the involvement of FAK, we transiently expressed FAK mutants that lacked tyrosine phosphorylation site (s) (F397Y, F925Y, F397/925Y). Transient expression of wild-type FAK or mock vector did not inhibit the stretch-induced BrdU incorporation, however, the FAK mutants significantly blocked BrdU incorporation. Treatment of the cells with MAPK inhibitors, PD98059 or SB203580, blocked extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation and p38 MAPK phosphorylation, respectively, and also blocked stretch-induced BrdU incorporation. These results suggest that the stretch-induced FAK activation followed by MAPK activation plays an important role in the stretch-induced proliferation of 3Y1 fibroblasts.