Effect of wave exposure on vegetation abundance, richness and depth distribution of shallow water plants in a New Zealand lake

SUMMARY 1. The effects of physical disturbance in terms of wave exposure, shore slope and substrate mobility on the presence, species richness, cover and depth limits of the low‐growing, shallow water macrophyte community (called the low mixed community) were examined at 41 shore sites in Lake Wanaka, South Island, New Zealand. 2. Wave exposure at a site was described by the previous year's maximum depth of sediment motion and maximum vertical extension of waves, determined from a computer wave model. Shore slope at each site was recorded from ?1 to 0 m depth, and sediment stability was assessed as the cover of small gravel. 3. The low mixed community was only present on sites where the previous year's maximum depth of sediment motion was <8 m, maximum wave run‐up was <0.3 m, shore slope <0.12 m m^?1, and small gravel cover <78%. 4. Species richness, cover and depth limits of the low mixed community decreased with increasing disturbance on the sites. Sixty‐two percentage of the variation in species richness could be explained by physical disturbance variables when all sites were included (N=41). When only sites with a low mixed community were included (N=22), only 18% of the variation was explained. Species richness within sites supporting a low mixed community is thus poorly explained by physical disturbance, whereas presence or absence is better explained. There was no evidence to support the intermediate disturbance hypothesis in this study. 5. Disturbance as a result of waves explained 86% of the variation in cover among sites with a low mixed community and accounted for 68 and 58% of the variation in upper and lower depth limit of the low mixed community, respectively. 6. The models obtained in this study can be used as predictive models for the low mixed community in New Zealand lakes in relation to natural physical disturbance on the shore. By integrating these results with previous studies on the effect of water level fluctuation, we describe a generalised optimum physical habitat for the low mixed community in New Zealand lakes.     

Species richness along a production gradient: a multivariate approach

The specific shape of the relationship between plant diversity and productivity and the causal mechanism(s) behind the observed pattern(s) are still highly debated. Recent advances suggest that the relationship depends on several environmental variables and may change with the observational scale. In this study, a multivariate, multiscale approach was used to identify the variables that determine the relationship between species richness and annual production along a forest/old field edge in southern Québec (Canada). Various relationships between richness and production were found at different distances to the edge. In the forest, most relationships were positive and linear, while in the old field the relationship shifted from positive linear to non-significant with increasing distance from the edge. In the forest or in the old field, the shape of the relationship (all distances from the edge combined) was unimodal. Path analyses showed that species richness was determined mostly by production, which was influenced by different limiting resources, depending on the community (forest or old field). An increasing range in production created by pooling across community types can confound the resources and/or conditions determining the diversity-productivity relationship.     

Species richness and interacting factors control invasibility of a marine community

Anthropogenic vectors have moved marine species around the world leading to increased invasions and expanded species'' ranges. The biotic resistance hypothesis of Elton (in The ecology of invasions by animals and plants, 1958) predicts that more diverse communities should have greater resistance to invasions, but experiments have been equivocal. We hypothesized that species richness interacts with other factors to determine experimental outcomes. We manipulated species richness, species composition (native and introduced) and availability of bare space in invertebrate assemblages in a marina in Monterey, CA. Increased species richness significantly interacted with both initial cover of native species and of all organisms to collectively decrease recruitment. Although native species decreased recruitment, introduced species had a similar effect, and we concluded that biotic resistance is conferred by total species richness. We suggest that contradictory conclusions in previous studies about the role of diversity in regulating invasions reflect uncontrolled variables in those experiments that modified the effect of species richness. Our results suggest that patches of low diversity and abundance may facilitate invasions, and that such patches, once colonized by non-indigenous species, can resist both native and non-indigenous species recruitment.     

Marine macroalgal biodiversity hotspots: why is there high species richness and endemism in southern Australian marine benthic flora?

The southern Australian marine macroalgal flora has the highest levels of species richness and endemism of any regional macroalgal flora in the world. Analyses of species composition and distributions for the southern Australian flora have identified four different floristic elements, namely the southern Australian endemic element, the widely distributed temperate element, the tropical element and a cold water element. Within the southern Australian endemic element, four species distribution patterns are apparent, thought to largely result from the Jurassic to Oligocene fragmentation of East Gondwana, the subsequent migration of Tethyan ancestors from the west Australian coast and the later invasion of high latitude Pacific species. Climatic deterioration from the late Eocene to the present is thought responsible for the replacement of the previous tropical south coast flora by an endemic temperate flora which has subsequently diversified in response to fluctuating environmental conditions, abundant rocky substrata and substantial habitat heterogeneity. High levels of endemism are attributed to Australia's long isolation and maintained, as is the high species richness, by the lack of recent mass extinction events. The warm water Leeuwin Current has had profound influence in the region since the Eocene, flowing to disperse macroalgal species onto the south coast as well as ameliorating the local environment. It is now evident that the high species richness and endemism we now observe in the southern Australian marine macroalgal flora can be attributed to a complex interaction of biogeographical, ecological and phylogenetic processes over the last 160 million years.     

Effects of macroalgal species identity and richness on primary production in benthic marine communities

Plant biodiversity can enhance primary production in terrestrial ecosystems, but biodiversity effects are largely unstudied in the ocean. We conducted a series of field and mesocosm experiments to measure the relative effects of macroalgal identity and richness on primary productivity (net photosynthetic rate) and biomass accumulation in hard substratum subtidal communities in North Carolina, USA. Algal identity consistently and strongly affected production; species richness effects, although often significent, were subtle. Partitioning of the net biodiversity effect indicated that complementarity effects were always positive and species were usually more productive in mixtures than in monoculture. Surprisingly, slow growing species performed relatively better in the most diverse treatments than the most productive species, thus selection effects were consistently negative. Our results suggest that several basic mechanisms underlying terrestrial plant biodiversity effects also operate in algal-based marine ecosystems, and thus may be general.     

Toward a better understanding of the regional causes of local community richness

Despite widespread acknowledgement that local ecological communities are profoundly shaped by regional-scale influences, including evolutionary and biogeographic processes, this perspective has yet to be widely incorporated into ecological research. Drawing on recent research, we propose four steps towards making regional influences a stronger part of research on the richness of local communities: (1) identifying the regional-scale causes of variation in species richness in the systems ecologists study; (2) testing for effects of regional richness on local richness, using improved observational and experimental analyses to overcome earlier problems; (3) simultaneously analysing environmental influences on regional and local species richness as well as the influence of regional richness on local richness and (4) considering the potential reciprocal effects of local processes on regional richness. In conclusion, we suggest some ways that similar approaches could be applied to other aspects of community structure beyond species richness.     

Species richness and assemblages of bats along a forest elevational transect in Papua New Guinea

Over the past decades, elevational gradients have become a powerful tool with which to understand the underlying cause(s) of biodiversity. The Mt. Wilhelm elevational transect is one such example, having been used to study the birds, insects, and plants of Papua New Guinea (PNG). However, a survey of mammals from this forest elevational transect was lacking. We thus aimed to investigate patterns in the community structure and species richness of bats (Chiroptera) along the transect, link the species to available regional data, and explain the observed patterns by including environmental characteristics. Bat assemblages were surveyed between 200 m and a timberline at 3700 m a.s.l. at eight study sites separated by 500 m in elevation. We conducted mist-netting and acoustic surveys to detect and identify species at each site. Regional data were compiled to compare local with regional diversity. Finally, biotic (i.e., food availability, habitat features) and abiotic (i.e., mean daily temperature) factors were included in our analyses to disentangle the ecological drivers underlying bat diversity. Results revealed that species richness decreases with ascending elevation and was best explained by a corresponding decrease in temperature. We observed both turnover and nestedness of the species composition at regional scale whereas turnover was dominant at local scale. Extensions and shifts of bat elevational ranges were also found in Mt. Wilhelm. Consequently, despite that the study was restricted to one mountain in PNG, it demonstrates how basic inventory surveys can be used to address ecological questions in other similar and undisturbed tropical mountains.     

Mammalian species richness and morphological complexity along an elevational gradient in the arid south-west

Aim We examined the relationship between species richness and morphological complexity of terrestrial mammal communities along an elevational gradient. Location The gradient is in the Sonoran Desert in Southern California and extends from a sand dune habitat near sea level to coniferous forest ending at >2600 m. Methods Morphological diversity, characterized by both size and shape of coexisting mammal species, was estimated within and between sites from projections of variables on principal components axes. Similarities among species were calculated as Euclidean distances. To tease apart size and shape, we constructed two principal component analyses: one based on log-transformed original measurements, the other on log-transformed proportional shape variables. To test whether species number accounted for the morphological diversity at each site we designed two null models. The models generated were random communities generated from the forty-two-species pool. Indices of morphological diversity for real communities were compared with the results of 500 simulations of each null model. Results Species richness varied along the gradient, peaking in the mid-elevation agave-ocotillo habitat. Morphological diversity of shapes and sizes correlated strongly with species richness. Locomotor, tooth, and skull traits were all important in distinguishing among species. Main conclusions Two important patterns emerged: (1) diversity of both sizes and of shapes of species within communities correlated positively with species number, and both sets of variables behaved similarly across this gradient; (2) the most species rich sites were not composed of specialists on these best places, but rather, a community of species derived from overlapping faunal groups.     

中国蔷薇科植物多样性格局及其资源植物保护现状

蔷薇科(Rosaceae)是在中国广泛分布并具有重要经济价值的植物类群, 但蔷薇科资源植物的物种多样性格局及其保护状况尚缺乏较系统的评估。该文旨在: 1)整理中国蔷薇科资源植物名录, 显示其物种多样性格局及热点地区, 并探究这一格局的形成机制。2)评估中国蔷薇科资源植物的保护状况, 为其保护规划提供基础数据。通过广泛收集整理《中国植物志》、省级植物志等资料中关于蔷薇科的记录, 建立了中国蔷薇科物种名录(共914种), 确定了物种的主要经济用途(包括食用植物、园林绿化植物、药用植物和水果种质资源), 并建立了每种植物的高精度分布图。在此基础上, 估算了蔷薇科全部物种及主要资源植物类别的物种多样性格局, 并利用广义线性模型和冗余分析探讨了蔷薇科物种多样性格局与环境的关系。最后将物种分布与中国国家级和省级自然保护区进行叠加分析, 评估了蔷薇科植物的保护现状。结果显示: 1)四川盆地北部、东部和西部山区以及横断山区是中国蔷薇科植物的热点地区。2)蔷薇科植物多样性主要受水分因子影响。3)横断山区、云南东南部和西藏东南部等地是保护薄弱物种集中的区域, 而悬钩子属(Rubus)等类群的保护不足。     

Species richness in soil bacterial communities: a proposed approach to overcome sample size bias

Estimates of species richness based on 16S rRNA gene clone libraries are increasingly utilized to gauge the level of bacterial diversity within various ecosystems. However, previous studies have indicated that regardless of the utilized approach, species richness estimates obtained are dependent on the size of the analyzed clone libraries. We here propose an approach to overcome sample size bias in species richness estimates in complex microbial communities. Parametric (Maximum likelihood-based and rarefaction curve-based) and non-parametric approaches were used to estimate species richness in a library of 13,001 near full-length 16S rRNA clones derived from soil, as well as in multiple subsets of the original library. Species richness estimates obtained increased with the increase in library size. To obtain a sample size-unbiased estimate of species richness, we calculated the theoretical clone library sizes required to encounter the estimated species richness at various clone library sizes, used curve fitting to determine the theoretical clone library size required to encounter the "true" species richness, and subsequently determined the corresponding sample size-unbiased species richness value. Using this approach, sample size-unbiased estimates of 17,230, 15,571, and 33,912 were obtained for the ML-based, rarefaction curve-based, and ACE-1 estimators, respectively, compared to bias-uncorrected values of 15,009, 11,913, and 20,909.     

Species richness of aquatic macrophyte communites in Central Canada

Aquatic macrophyte species richness (SR) was examined at 430 sites in the central Canadian region in relation to water body type, bottom substrate and 8 water chemistry parameters. SR was highest in rivers and lakes, intermediate in creeks, and lowest in ponds. The highest values occurred where granitic bedrock, highly organic substrates or sand predominated. SR was significantly inversely correlated in the study area as a whole with 7 of the water chemistry parameters; of these, total alkalinity was the most important. However, the relative importance of the respective parameters differed for various water body types. The relationship between SR and phosphorus was positive in ponds, but negative for all other water body types. Stepwise sultiple regression analysis identified phosphorus, total alkalinity and dissolved organic matter as important factors in ponds; sulphate, total alkalinity and chloride in lakes, and sulphate and phosphorus in lotic habitats. Log transformations improved the correlations for some variables. However, the water chemistry parameters examined accounted for less than half of the total variability in SR. Apparently SR depends on many different factors, including surface areaand bottom type, whose relative contributions vary with situation.     

Species richness in tropical fresh waters of Australia

General ecological expectations about the relationship between latitude and species richness are that at low latitudes (the tropics) species richness is greater than at higher latitudes (temperate and polar regions). Recent work suggests that this may not be the case for several habitat types and biological groups in Australia. Results are conflicting: on present evidence (admittedly sparse) it appears that in Australian tropical fresh waters species richness is generally depressed in zooplankton and littoral microfaunal communities, but not in macroinvertebrate communities in typical streams and in fish communities (and perhaps also in amphibian and reptile communities). The situation is indeterminate for tropical phytoplankton and macrophyte communities.     

A multiple-site similarity measure independent of richness

The Diserud–Ødegaard multiple-site similarity index makes use of data on species shared by two or more sites, but produces equal similarity values in two different circumstances: species loss and true species turnover. We developed a new multiple-site similarity measure, which is independent of richness and performs better than the Diserud–Ødegaard index under conditions of equal richness between sites, because it discriminates between situations in which shared species are distributed evenly among sites or concentrated in few pairs of sites. We conducted several simulations to assess the relative performance of both the indices. The use of the new measure is recommended, enabling the simultaneous analysis of turnover and richness gradients based on two independent measures.     

Regional patterns of diversity and estimates of global insect species richness

The total number of insect species in the world is an important if elusive figure. We use a fresh approach to estimate global insect species richness, based on biogeographic patterns of diversity of well or better documented taxa. Estimates generated by various calculations, all variations on a theme, largely serve to substantiate suggestions that insect species are likely to number around 10 million or less.     

Species richness of marine Bryozoa in the continental shelf and slope off Argentina (south-west Atlantic)

Abstract.  A total of 246 marine bryozoan species was recorded within an area of the south-west Atlantic between 35° and 56°S, and between the coast of Argentina and 50°W. The distribution pattern of benthic stations surveyed during the most important cruises in the area shows that the sampling effort has been biased towards southern shelf areas off Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego, as well as around the Malvinas (Falkland) islands. The littoral zone, Patagonian gulfs and the continental shelf off Chubut, Río Negro and Buenos Aires state received less attention, and should be surveyed more intensively in the future. Only 2% of the species can be regarded as non-indigenous, all of them inhabiting biofouling communities in harbour environments. With the exception of some thoroughly surveyed localities, the number of species recorded for different areas of the coast, shelf and slope is estimated to be just a small fraction of the actual number of species present. A distinct diversity gradient was found, with species-rich stations located only in the southern shelf. Highest diversity occurred in shelf areas dominated by coarse sediments, and along a high-productivity shelf-break front. A remarkable decrease in species richness was found in inner and middle shelf areas off Chubut, Río Negro and Buenos Aires state. This pattern may be related to the Pacific origin of the Magellanic fauna, since the diversity of bryozoans is higher in the Pacific than in the Atlantic Ocean. The trend of species richness is, however, overemphasized by the fact that the least diverse faunistic assemblage occurs in areas where surveys have been relatively less frequent. An up-to-date checklist of species recorded for the study area is included.     

云南横断山区蚤类物种丰富度与区系的垂直分布格局

为探讨横断山区蚤类物种丰富度与区系垂直分布格局的基本规律以及影响它们分布的主要生态因子,本文以云南西部横断山区18个山峰为主体,对海拔高度在1000–5000m之间已知分布的9科43属142种(亚种)蚤类的垂直分布资料进行综合整理和统计分析。结果显示:(1)蚤类的属丰富度、物种丰富度、特有种丰富度和特有度以及不同区系成分物种丰富度的垂直分布都呈现随海拔先增高后降低的单峰分布格局,最大峰值出现在中山海拔2500–3800m之间;(2)东洋和古北两区系成分物种构成比的垂直分布格局截然不同,前者随着海拔梯度的升高基本递减,后者则随着海拔的升高递增,垂直分布格局反映了它们沿纬度梯度分布的一般规律;(3)聚类分析将横断山9个不同海拔带的蚤类归为6个生态类型,反映出海拔高度、气候环境和森林植被等重要因素对蚤类分布的影响以及蚤类群落的组成、分布沿海拔梯度变化的一般规律,表达了蚤类分布与环境条件的统一性;(4)β多样性沿海拔梯度呈现为双峰形分布格局,两高峰值都反映出蚤类的组成和分布在不同气候环境和植被带之间的过渡与转变,说明β多样性垂直分布格局与海拔梯度上的气候和生境的变化程度有关。研究认为,中山地段物种丰富度高峰的形成主要是由于两大动、植物区系过渡区的边缘效应和山地水湿条件的影响。影响该区域蚤类垂直分布格局的综合因素有山体海拔高度、动植物区系过渡区的边缘效应、山地雨量分配特征、气候环境条件以及人们的生产活动等。