Immunity to Litomosoides carinii in Mastomys natalensis. II. Effects of chemotherapeutically abbreviated and postpatent primary infections on challenges with various stages of the parasite

Naive Mastomys natalensis, Litomosoides carinii-infected M. natalensis at a postpatent stage of the infection and L. carinii-infected M. natalensis treated chemotherapeutically with furazolidone (FUR), FUR and diethylcarbamazine (FUR/DEC) or amoscanate (AMOS) were challenged by either injection or implantation of 40 third stage larvae (L3, s.c.), 40 fourth stage larvae (L4, 16 days old, i.p.), 20 male and 20 female preadult worms (36 days old, i.p.), 12 adult female worms (i.p.) or 6 X 10(6) microfilariae/kg (i.v.). Microfilaraemia in animals challenged at a postpatent stage (independent of the kind of challenge), was either totally suppressed or at least greatly reduced. Necropsy of L3-challenged animals showed that neither the length of the worms nor their content of morphologically intact, intrauterine stages was affected. Infected, treated animals challenged with developing stages (L3, L4 and preadult worms) showed reduced levels of microfilaraemia (by up to 75%). Dissection of AMOS-treated, L3-challenged animals showed that both the developmental rate and the fertility of the worms were affected. Microfilaraemia was also reduced after implantation of adult worms into treated animals. This was independent of the interval between treatment and challenge (44-150 days) except in animals challenged 10 days after AMOS-treatment, which showed no difference from naive controls. However, infected, treated M. natalensis, cotton rats and gerbils did not develop immunity against intravenously injected blood microfilariae.     

Dirofilaria immitis: the moulting of the infective larva in vitro

A number of in vitro culture systems were tested for their ability to support the development of Dirofilaria immitis infective larvae to the fourth larval stage. In cultures of medium ML-15 containing a feeder layer of Dog Sarcoma (DS) cells larvae successfully moulted and showed a small but significant increase in length. Ultrastructural observations demonstrated that the fourth-stage cuticle was synthesized in vitro and in some larvae was fully formed by 60 hours of culture. The hypodermis of moulting larvae contained numerous multi-vesicular bodies. It is concluded that the moult in vitro is a true moult and not an atypical response of the larvae to the conditions of culture.     

The effect of juvenile hormone on host-plant preference in the black bean aphid, Aphis fabae

ABSTRACT. When offered the choice between a germinating tick bean (summer host) and a detached spindle leaf (winter host) adult gynoparae of Aphis fabae Scop. showed a distinct preference for spindle, as judged by site of larviposition. However, when offered the same alternatives, all four larval instars showed a settling preference for bean. A switch in host preference therefore occurs at or shortly after final (fourth) moult. Fifth instar, supernumerary larvae induced by juvenile hormone (JH I) treatment also preferred bean, indicating that the host preference switch at the fourth moult had been inhibited. Larval/adult intermediate forms produced by JH I treatment, but which were capable of parturition, showed a significant increase in the acceptability of bean as a larviposition site. Acceptability was proportional to the degree of juvenilization. Thus, although larviposition is an adult prerogative, JH I can influence the preferred site. This may, however, be an indirect effect which reflects a juvenilized settling preference.     

Competence of the housefly,Musca domestica,as a vector of Microsporum canis under experimental conditions

Abstract The role of Musca domestica Linnaeus as a vector of the dermatophyte Microsporum canis was investigated under experimental laboratory conditions. About 400 4‐day‐old M. domestica flies were divided into two groups. Group A consisted of about 200 infected flies and group B comprised about 200 uninfected flies that were used as controls. Each trial was run three times. Flies from group A were fed for 24 h with a solution of ultra‐high temperature‐treated (UHT) milk containing about 10⁶ colony‐forming units (CFU) per mL of M. canis (infected milk inoculum [IMI]). The control group (group B) was fed with only UHT milk spiked with a teaspoon of honey. Microsporum canis was detected from faeces, vomitus, external surfaces and internal organs of 20 adult flies, eggs, first‐, second‐ and third‐stage (L1, L2, L3) larvae and pupae of each group, as well from 20 adult newly emerged flies (NEFs; from infected generations only). Samples were collected at 2, 4, 6 and 24 h post‐infection (p.i.) (i.e. the times at which IMI was available) and on 2, 5, 7 and 8 days p.i. from adult flies, faeces and vomitus. Eggs, L1, L2, L3 and pupae were processed as soon as they appeared. Equivalent samples were taken from group B. All the samples were individually cultured. Microsporum canis was not isolated from the control group, from eggs, larvae, pupae or NEFs, or from faeces and vomitus, although it was detected on the body surface (26.2%) and internal organs (26.9%) of adult flies. The highest positivity for M. canis was detected on flies within the first 6 h p.i. (i.e. 57.2% on the body surface and 71.6% in the internal organs). No M. canis was isolated at 24 h p.i., but it was isolated from the body surface only at 2 and 5 days p.i. The results presented provide evidence that M. domestica transmits M. canis mechanically with its outer body surface for up to 5 days p.i., but does not do so through its vomitus and faeces or transovarially. The role played by M. domestica in the epidemiology of human and animal dermatophytoses is discussed.     

Age-specific digestion of Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) and inhibition of proteolytic and amylolytic activity by plant proteinaceous seed extracts

Tenebrio molitor L. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), is an international and serious pest of stored products. So far nothing is known about the activity for each growth stage digestive enzyme regarding this insect species. Thus, the aim of the current study was to get in depth analysis of the stage specific digestion and to investigate the effect of cereal (wheat cultivars including MV17, Aflak, Sivand, Saymon, and Zare) and legume (bean) seed extracts on the two main digestive enzymes i.e. α-amylases and proteases. Therefore, gut enzymes were extracted using distilled water and wheat cultivars and bean seed proteinaceous compounds were extracted using 0.1 M NaCl. Results showed that a steady state increase in the number and amount of digestive enzyme activities from first to fourth instar larvae was seen in both enzyme and in gel assays. In the first instar larvae (L1) only one band of α-amylase activity was seen (A1), whereas in the second (L2), third (L3), fourth (L4) and fifth (L5) instar larvae as well as in the adult (A) more than one amylase band (up to 4 isoenzymes) was seen. The same pattern was observed for α and β glucosidases and proteases. Probit analysis showed that bean and MV17 inhibited the amylase activity with an I₅₀ of 9.73 and 7.4 μg, respectively. The same cultivar seed extract inhibited protease activity with I₅₀s of 11.54 and 6.5 μg proteins. It is concluded that proteinaceous extract of cereals and bean seeds have a strong potential to be used in this pest management.     

Fate of developing larvae of Onchocerca lienalis and O. volvulus in micropore chambers implanted into laboratory hosts

Infective larvae of Onchocerca lienalis and O. volvulus implanted subcutaneously within micropore chambers into laboratory hosts moulted to the fourth stage (L4) and underwent limited development and growth. Similar recoveries of O. lienalis L4 larvae in the range of 33-66% were obtained from chambers implanted into CBA and BALB/c strains of mice, jirds, and the natural bovine host. A relatively constant proportion of larvae survived up to 24 days post implantation and thereafter recoveries declined, although some worms were still alive after 96 days. Recoveries of O. volvulus L4 larvae from chambers given to normal or T-cell deprived mice were equivalent to one another and to those obtained with O. lienalis. Moulting of O. lienalis in chambers was observed on days 3 and 5, in close accordance with the timing of the third moult in cattle following systemic infection. Moulting of O. volvulus occurred between days 3-6. Morphological changes in developing larvae included a small but significant increase in length, a transient increase in width, and early development of the spicular primordia and genital tube. L4 larvae of O. lienalis, but not those of O. volvulus, exhibited 3 distinct caudal papillae not present on infective larvae.     

Lepidopteran anti-juvenile hormones: Effects on development of Apanteles congregatus in Manduca sexta

Parasitism by the braconid wasp Apanteles congregatus decreases the effectiveness of the anti-juvenile hormone agents ETB (ethyl 4-[2-{ittert-butyl carbonyloxy}bytoxy]benzoate) and fluoromevalonolactone (FMev) in inducing precocious metamorphosis of Manduca sexta larvae. Topical application of 1–200 μg ETB to parasitized third-instar larvae had no effect on either host or parasite development, whereas doses of 50μg or more ETB applied to unparasitized third-instar larvae caused formation of larval-pupal intermediates after the fourth instar. Parasitism also decreased the effectiveness of 100–200 μg FMev in causing metamorphosis at the moult following its application. In contrast to ETB, FMev disrupted development of the parasitoids. No wasps emerged when preterminal stage hosts were treated with FMev and the hosts formed larval-pupal intermediates. After treatment of terminal stage hosts with FMev, the number of emerging parasitoids was reduced by one-third. Precocene II (100 μg per larvae) had no effect on development of either M. sexta or A. congregatus.     

The distribution of inhibited early third stage Cyathostominae larvae in the large intestine of the horse

The distribution of inhibited early third stage Cyathostominae larvae in different parts of the large intestine of the horse was studied in 20 Shetland ponies necropsied in autumn 1982, 1983 and 1984. The location of the larvae in the large intestinal wall was studied by histological examination of the intestines of the eight ponies from 1984. Inhibited larvae were located predominantly and more or less equally in the caecum and the ventral colon. Generally fewer early L3 were in the dorsal colon. In 1984 a considerable proportion (mean 17%, range 9.7-36.9%) of the inhibited larvae was found in the contents instead of in the mucosa of the large intestine, despite a housing period under helminth free conditions of 5 weeks. These larvae probably had been overlooked in 1982 and 1983. In sections cut from the intestinal wall most early L3 were found in the lamina propria. They were surrounded by a small fibrous capsule. Some were found in the lumen or epithelium of the Lieberkühn's crypts and a small proportion in the submucosa.     

Life cycle of Trichostrongylus retortaeformis in its natural host,the rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)

The chronology of the life cycle of Trichostrongylus retortaeformis (Zeder, 1800) (Nematoda, Trichostrongyloidea) is studied in its natural host Oryctolagus cuniculus. The free living period lasted 5 days at 24 degrees C. Worm-free rabbits were each infected per os with T. retortaeformis larvae. Rabbits were killed at 12 h post-infection (p.i.) and every day from one day to 13 days p.i. By 12 h p.i., all the larvae were exsheathed and in the small intestine. The third moult occurred between 3 and 5 days p.i. and the last moult between 4 and 7 days p.i. The prepatent period lasted 12 to 13 days. The patent period lasted five and a half months. The four known life cycles of species of Trichostrongylus in ruminants were compared with that of T. retortaeformis. No significant difference was found except in the duration of the prepatent period. These similarities in the life cycles confirm the previously formulated hypotheses on the relationship between the parasites of the two host groups (Durette-Desset, 1985).     

Blowflies Calliphora vicina and Lucilia sericata as passive vectors of Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium, M. a. paratuberculosis and M. a. hominissuis

Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (Actinomycetales: Mycobacteriaceae) isolates of identical restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) type B-C1 were isolated from: intestinal mucosa of two cows showing clinical signs of paratuberculosis, a specimen of the blowfly Calliphora vicina Robineau-Desvoidy (Diptera: Calliphoridae) captured while perched on these cattle intestines in a waste container at the site of the slaughter, and the blowflies C. vicina and Lucilia caesar Linnaeus captured the next day at the same site when no infected cattle with paratuberculosis were slaughtered. Subsequently, second-stage larvae of the blowflies C. vicina and Lucilia sericata (Meigen) were experimentally infected by feeding them liver from hens with avian tuberculosis caused by M. a. avium (serotype 1, genotype IS901+ and IS1245+) and small cuts of pork meat contaminated with M. a. hominissuis (serotype 8, genotype IS901- and IS1245+). Mycobacterium a. avium of identical serotype, genotype and RFLP type F-C3 was isolated from C. vicina larvae on days 4 and 11 post infection (p.i.) and from L. sericata larvae on day 4 p.i. Identical RFLP type B-C1 of M. a. paratuberculosis was isolated from adult C. vicina fed with artificially contaminated saccharose solution on day 2 p. i. Investigation of M. a. paratuberculosis distribution inside the adult C. vicina showed that the majority of Colony Forming Units (CFU) were isolated from the abdomen and head, fewer from the thorax and wings and none from the legs. Larvae and adults may participate in spreading causal agents of mycobacterial infections and this fact should be considered during sanitation of infected herds and in slaughterhouses when materials from animals affected by mycobacterial infections are processed.     

The effect of catecholamines and catecholamine antagonists on the third larval moult of Dirofilaria immitis in vitro.

Various catecholamines and catecholamine antagonists have been examined for their effects on the third larval moult of the parasitic nematode. Dirofilaria immitis, cultured in vitro. The non-selective alpha and beta agonist, noradrenaline, and the beta agonist, isoprenaline, had no effect on the timing of the third stage moult when used at a concentration of 10(-5) M. The alpha-adrenergic antagonist, phentolamine, resulted in worm mortality at 10(-5) M. At 10(-7) M, both phentolamine and the beta-antagonist, propranolol caused a significant reduction in the numbers of larvae capable of completing the third stage moult. Idazoxan, an alpha 2-antagonist, at 10(-5) M did not affect worm mortality but did completely prevent ecdysis. The potential of these compounds as possible filaricides is discussed.     

Observations on the biology of Rhabdochona kidderi texensis, a parasite of North American cichlids

An examination of a sample of benthic invertebrates collected from the Upper San Marcos River in southwestern Texas, USA in September 1999 revealed that the nymph of the ephemeropteran Tricorythodes curvatus served as natural intermediate host of the nematode Rhabdochona kidderi texensis (Nematoda: Rhabdochonidae), an intestinal parasite mainly of the Rio Grande perch (Cichlasoma cyanoguttatum) in this locality; the prevalence of the parasite's third- and fourth-stage larvae in mayflies was 6.8% with the intensity of 1-2 larvae per nymph. Live R. kidderi texensis eggs collected from nematodes recovered from C. cyanoguttatum in Texas were transported to the Czech Republic, where they were used to experimentally infect nymphs of the palaearctic mayfly species Paraleptophlebia submarginata; the development of infective third- and fourth-stage larvae in this experimental intermediate host was completed after approximately 10 days at 19 degrees C. Infected nymphs were fed to aquarium-reared fishes, four Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum and one Oreochromis niloticus, of which only three of the former became infected. The last (fourth) moult of a male nematode was observed in C. nigrofasciatum 23 days p.i. and adult males and gravid females with not fully mature (non-embryonated) eggs in uteri on days 40 and 51 p.i. The prepatent period of R. kidderi texensis is approximately two months.     

Ivermectin inhibits molting of Wuchereria bancrofti third stage larvae in vitro

The effect of ivermectin or diethylcarbamazine (DEC) on Wuchereria bancrofti molting from the third to the fourth larval stage (L3 to L4) was evaluated in vitro. L3 larvae were harvested from laboratory-reared Aedes togoi 2 wk after feeding upon a microfilaremic human volunteer. The larvae were kept in an artificial medium (Franke's NI medium) with 10% human serum under an atmosphere of 5% CO2 for 20 days. Experimental tubes also contained ivermectin (0.1-1,000 ng/ml) or DEC (0.1-10,000 ng/ml). An estimated concentration of 50 ng/ml ivermectin inhibited molting in 50% of the larvae expected to molt. For DEC, this value was roughly 1,000 ng/ml. In this in vitro culture system, ivermectin inhibited the L3 to L4 molt of W. bancrofti and was roughly 20-fold more potent in this activity than DEC.     

Developmental changes in dopamine levels in larvae of the fly Chymomyza costata: comparison between wild-type and mutant-nondiapause strains

Dopamine and two related catecholamines, L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) and N-acetyl dopamine (NADA), were analyzed in whole body and tissue samples taken throughout late larval development of the drosophilid fly Chymomyza costata, which enters facultative diapause as a mature 3rd instar larva in response to short photophase. Wild-type (W) and mutant-nondiapause (M) strains reared under diapause inducing (d) and preventing (nd) photophases were compared. Developmental changes in the whole body of dopamine levels showed some general features irrespective of fly strain and rearing conditions: sharp major peaks during moult from second to third instar larva and during pupariation; lower minor peaks around the middle of both 2nd and 3rd instars. Significant differences between the strains and conditions were also found: dopamine levels were lower throughout the 2nd instar and during the 2nd to 3rd instar moult of mutant strain larvae (M/d) as compared to wild-type larvae (W/nd and W/d); while the late 2nd and late 3rd instar larvae destined to diapause (W/d) maintained relatively high dopamine concentrations, their counterparts destined to continuous development (W/nd and M/d) significantly decreased dopamine levels prior to the 2nd to 3rd instar moult or pupariation. Possible relationship between the dopamine levels and diapause induction/onset in C. costata larvae is discussed. Integument contained more than 90% of the dopamine found in the whole body. The gut and central nervous tissues showed relatively low pools of dopamine, only trace amounts were detected in haemolymph and no dopamine was found in fat body. DOPA levels were low and stable throughout larval development of both W and M strains and under both conditions. NADA levels peaked during second halves of 2nd and 3rd instars of both strains, then dropped to trace levels and were elevated again during 2nd to 3rd instar moult as well as in tanned prepupae. No elevation of NADA levels was recorded in 3rd instar W/d larvae which entered diapause.     

Effects of plant ribosome-inactivating proteins on ribosomes from Musca domestica.

1. Ribosomes from M. domestica larvae were isolated and their susceptibility to the action of several ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) from plants was tested. 2. Ribosome-inactivating proteins inhibited, to different extents, phenylalanine polymerization by ribosomes. 3. Analysis of RNA from RIP-treated ribosomes showed the appearance of an aniline-cleavable rRNA fragment resulting from the N-glycosidase activity of the RIPs. 4. The release of adenine from saporin 6-treated M. domestica ribosomes was demonstrated by h.p.l.c. analysis.     

Life history and pathogenesis of Gallegostrongylus australis (Nematoda: Angiostrongylidae) in muridae

Gallegostrongylus australis Spratt, Haycock & Walter, 2001 (Nematoda: Angiostrongylidae) developed in Deroceras panormitanum, Lehmannia nyctelia, L. flava and Milax gigates (Gastropoda). The first moult occurred at 18-19 days after infection (DAI) and the second moult at 28 DAI. Larvae were infective to experimental murid definitive hosts at 35 DAI. In experimentally infected Rattus fuscipes larvae moulted L3-4 at 3 DAI and L4-5 at 6-7 DAI. Patency in R.fuscipes, R. lutreolus, R. norvegicus and R. rattus occurred 27-64 DAI and duration varied from 7-392 days. Histopathological changes in the lungs of R. lutreolus and development of debilitating clinical signs, in contrast to R. fuscipes, suggests that the former host-parasite relationship may be the more recent one but other traits suggest the opposite. Patent infections were established in some wild R. rattus and some laboratory R. norvegicus but not in wild M. domesticus, laboratory M. musculus, rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus, and marsupial bandicoot, Isoodon macrourus.     

Rate of increase of Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus in Trichoplusia ni larvae determined by DNA:DNA hybridization

The rate of increase and doubling time of the HOB clone of Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus (AcMNPV-HOB) in neonate Trichoplusia ni larvae was determined by measuring the increase in viral DNA through time following inoculation with average doses of 50 or 17,400 occlusion bodies per larva. Changes in total DNA and viral DNA through time were followed by fluorescence spectroscopy and quantitative slot-blot DNA:DNA hybridization, respectively. Total DNA content (i.e., larval DNA and viral DNA) of larvae infected with the intermediate dose lagged behind that of noninfected larvae 30 hr post-inoculation (p.i), reached a maximum at 51 hr p.i., and stayed constant thereafter. The total DNA content of larvae inoculated with the high dose lagged behind that of the control group from 18 hr p.i. and increased slowly until death of the larvae (ca. 48 hr p.i.). The amount of viral DNA in larvae inoculated with the intermediate dose increased exponentially between 15 and 42 hr p.i., reached a maximum at 48 hr p.i., and stayed constant until 68 hr p.i., by which time most larvae had died. The amount of viral DNA in larvae inoculated with the high dose did not increase exponentially; initially the rate of increase was the same as that for larvae inoculated with the intermediate dose but became progressively lower after 13 hr p.i. Calculations of the rate of increase for AcMNPV-HOB in neonate T. ni larvae inoculated with the intermediate dose and incubated at 29 degrees C resulted in a value of 0.264 hr-1 (doubling time: 2.63 hr).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Inoculating poultry manure with companion bacteria influences growth and development of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae

The growth and development of black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.), larvae fed chicken manure inoculated with bacteria isolated from black soldier fly larvae and associated larval feed was evaluated. Four strains of Bacillus subtilis were evaluated. B. subtilis strains S15, S16, S19, were isolated from the gut of black soldier fly larvae. B. natto strain D1 was isolated from the diet fed to black soldier fly larvae. These bacteria were added individually into nonsterile 200 g fresh hen manure at 10(6) cfu/g and homogenized. Treated manure was then inoculated with 4-d old black soldier fly larvae. Prepupal weight ranged from 0.0606 g in the control to 0.0946 g in manure treated with the S15 strain. Larval survivorship to the prepupal stage in all treatments ranged from 98.00 ± 2.65% to 99.33 ± 1.15%. Prepupal survivorship to the pupal stage ranged from 91.92 ± 1.87% to 97.95 ± 1.03%. Adult emergence from the pupal stage did not significantly (P < 0.05) differ across treatments and ranged from 98.95 ± 1.82% to 100.00 ± 0.00%. Adult body length resulting from the larvae in each of the treatments was significantly greater than those from the control. Longevity of adults did not differ significantly between treatments. Time from hatching to the development of the first pupa did not differ significantly across treatments; however, development time from hatching to 90% reaching the prepupual stage was significantly different between treatments and ranged from 29.00 ± 1.00 d to 34.33 ± 3.51 d. Development time from hatching to 90% reaching the adult stages was significantly different between treatments. Our results demonstrate that inoculating poultry manure with bacteria from black soldier fly larvae influences the growth and development of conspecific larvae feeding on the manure.     

Development of Trichosomoides nasalis (Nematoda: Trichinelloidea) in the murid host: evidence for larval growth in striated muscle fibres

Trichosomoides nasalis (Trichinelloidea) is a parasite of Arvicanthis niloticus (Muridae) in Senegal. Female worms that harbour dwarf males in their uteri, occur in the epithelium of the nasal mucosa. Young laboratory-bred A. niloticus were either fed females containing larvated eggs or intraperitoneally injected with motile first-stage larvae recovered from female uteri. Both resulted in successful infection. Organs examined during rodent necropsy were blood and lymphatic circulatory systems (heart, large vessels, lymphnodes), lungs, liver, kidneys, thoracic and abdominal cavities, thoracic and abdominal muscular walls, diaphragm, tongue, and nasal mucosa. Development to adult nasal stages took three weeks. Recovery of newly hatched larvae from the peritoneal fluid at four-eight hours after oral infection suggests a direct passage from the stomach or intestinal wall to the musculature. However, dissemination through the blood, as observed with Trichinella spiralis, cannot be excluded even though newly hatched larvae of T. nasalis are twice as thick (15 μm). Developing larvae were found in histological sections of the striated muscle of the abdominal and thoracic walls, and larvae in fourth moult were dissected from these sites. Adult females were found in the deep nasal mucosa where mating occurred prior to worms settling in the nasal epithelium. The present study shows a remarkable similarity between T. nasalis and Trichinella species regarding muscle tropism, but the development of T. nasalis is not arrested at the late first-larval stage and does not induce transformation of infected fibres into nurse cells. T. nasalis seems a potential model to study molecular relations between trichinelloid larvae and infected muscle fibres.     

Glycogen catabolism enzymes and protein fractions in the third and fourth larval stages of Anisakis simplex

Extracts of Anisakis simplex third (L3) and fourth (L4) larval stages were assayed for protein content and activity and properties of alpha-amylase, glucoamylase and glycogen phosphorylase. Protein content in L4 was twice that in L3. SDS-PAGE applied to both larval stages revealed 22 protein fractions in each, including five stage-specific fractions in each larval stage. The L3 extracts contained three amylase isoenzymes: alpha 1, alpha 2 and alpha 3; their molecular weights were 64, 29 and 21 kDa, respectively. Only one amylase isoenzyme (64 kDa) was found in the L4 extracts. Glycogen in L3 was found to be broken down mostly by hydrolysis because of low glycogen phosphorylase activity. The alpha-amylase activity in L4 was higher than that in L3 by half and the glycogen phosphorylase activity was ten times higher. In addition, the same enzymes isolated from L3 and L4 were found to differ in their properties. These differences could be manifestations of metabolic adaptations of A. simplex larvae to host switch from fish (L3) to mammals (L4), i.e. adaptations to a new habitat.