Nanostructured Ternary Electrodes for Energy‐Storage Applications

A three‐component, flexible electrode is developed for supercapacitors over graphitized carbon fabric, utilizing γ‐MnO₂ nanoflowers anchored onto carbon nanotubes (γ‐MnO₂/CNT) as spacers for graphene nanosheets (GNs). The three‐component, composite electrode doubles the specific capacitance with respect to GN‐only electrodes, giving the highest‐reported specific capacitance (308 F g^?1) for symmetric supercapacitors containing MnO₂ and GNs using a two‐electrode configuration, at a scan rate of 20 mV s^?1. A maximum energy density of 43 W h kg^?1 is obtained for our symmetric supercapacitors at a constant discharge‐current density of 2.5 A g^?1 using GN–(γ‐MnO₂/CNT)‐nanocomposite electrodes. The fabricated supercapacitor device exhibits an excellent cycle life by retaining ≈90% of the initial specific capacitance after 5000 cycles.     

A High Performance Stretchable Asymmetric Fiber‐Shaped Supercapacitor with a Core‐Sheath Helical Structure

The emerging fiber‐shaped supercapacitors (FSSs) have motivated tremendous research interest in energy storage devices. However, challenges still exist in the pursuit of combination of excellent electrochemical performance and mechanical stretchability. Here, a core‐sheath asymmetric FSS is first made by wrapping gel electrolyte coated carbon nanotube (CNT)@MnO₂ core fiber with CNT@PPy composite film. Then a stretchable helical structure is formed by over‐twisting the FSS. The resulted stretchable asymmetric FSS exhibits a specific capacitance of 60.435 mF cm^?2 at the scan rate of 10 mV s^?1 and the capacitance performance is well maintained during repeated stretching to 20% strain. Furthermore, a high energy density of 18.88 μW h cm^?2 is achieved for the stretchable FSS due to its high specific capacitance and extended potential window of 1.5 V.     

Electromechanical Properties of Polymer Electrolyte‐Based Stretchable Supercapacitors

Aligned carbon nanotube (CNT) forests filled with a dehydrated polymer electrolyte are used to fabricate flexible solid state supercapacitors (SSCs) for multifunctional structural‐electronic applications. Local stiffness measurements on the composite electrodes determined through nano­indentation showed an 80% increase over the neat solid polymer electrolyte matrix. Electrochemical properties are monitored as a function of average tensile strain in the SSCs. Galvanostatic charge‐discharge tests with in situ microtensile testing on SSCs are used to show a 10% increase in the specific capacitance through the elastic region of the composite. The increase in capacitance is partly attributed to the enhanced double layer interaction that results from the partial alignment of the polymer electrolyte chains at the electrode‐electrolyte interface. When soaked in 1 m sulfuric acid, the specific capacitance of the CNT‐polymer electrolyte reached approximately 72 F g^–1 at 60 °C.     

Freestanding and Sandwich‐Structured Electrode Material with High Areal Mass Loading for Long‐Life Lithium–Sulfur Batteries

Freestanding cathode materials with sandwich‐structured characteristic are synthesized for high‐performance lithium–sulfur battery. Sulfur is impregnated in nitrogen‐doped graphene and constructed as primary active material, which is further welded in the carbon nanotube/nanofibrillated cellulose (CNT/NFC) framework. Interconnected CNT/NFC layers on both sides of active layer are uniquely synthesized to entrap polysulfide species and supply efficient electron transport. The 3D composite network creates a hierarchical architecture with outstanding electrical and mechanical properties. Synergistic effects generated from physical and chemical interaction could effectively alleviate the dissolution and shuttling of the polysulfide ions. Theoretical calculations reveal the hydroxyl functionization exhibits a strong chemical binding with the discharge product (i.e., Li₂S). Electrochemical measurements suggest that the rationally designed structure endows the electrode with high specific capacity and excellent rate performance. Specifically, the electrode with high areal sulfur loading of 8.1 mg cm^?2 exhibits an areal capacity of ≈8 mA h cm^?2 and an ultralow capacity fading of 0.067% per cycle over 1000 discharge/charge cycles at C/2 rate, while the average coulombic efficiency is around 97.3%, indicating good electrochemical reversibility. This novel and low‐cost fabrication procedure is readily scalable and provides a promising avenue for potential industrial applications.     

Synthesis of Pseudocapacitive Polymer Chain Anode and Subnanoscale Metal Oxide Cathode for Aqueous Hybrid Capacitors Enabling High Energy and Power Densities along with Long Cycle Life

Aqueous electrochemical energy storages are of enormous attention due to their high safety and being environmentally friendly, but they must satisfy very challenging standards in energy and power densities over long repeated charging/discharging cycles. Herein, a strategy to realize high‐performance aqueous hybrid capacitors (AHCs) using pseudocapacitive negative and positive electrodes is reported. Polymer chains, which are synthesized by in situ polymerization of polyaniline on reduced graphene sheets, show fiber‐like morphologies and the redox‐reactive surface area allowing high capacitance as anode materials even at a high current density of 20 A g^?1 and a high loading of ≈6 mg cm^?2. Additionally, subnanoscale metal oxide particles on graphene are utilized as pseudocapacitive cathode materials and they show the approximately threefold higher capacitance than nanocrystals of ≈10 nm. Assembling these polymer chain anode and subnanoscale metal oxide cathode in full‐cell AHCs is shown to give the high energy density exceeding those of aqueous batteries along with the ≈100% capacity retention over 100 000 redox cycles. Additionally, AHCs exhibit the high power density allowing ultrafast charging, so that the switching wearable display kit with two AHCs in series can be charged within several seconds by the flexible photovoltaic module and USB switching charger.     

Highly Stretchable Supercapacitors via Crumpled Vertically Aligned Carbon Nanotube Forests

Stretchable supercapacitors have received increasing attention due to their broad applications in developing self‐powered stretchable electronics for wearable electronics, epidermal and implantable electronics, and biomedical devices that are capable of sustaining large deformations and conforming to complicated surfaces. In this work, a new type of highly stretchable and reliable supercapacitor is developed based on crumpled vertically aligned carbon nanotube (CNT) forests transferred onto an elastomer substrate with the assistance of a thermal annealing process in atmosphere environment. The crumpled CNT‐forest electrodes demonstrated good electrochemical performance and stability under either uniaxial (300%) or biaxial strains (300% × 300%) for thousands of stretching–relaxing cycles. The resulting supercapacitors can sustain a stretchability of 800% and possess a specific capacitance of 5 mF cm^?2 at the scan rate of 50 mV s^?1. Furthermore, the crumpled CNT‐forest electrodes can be easily decorated with impregnated metal oxide nanoparticles to improve the specific capacitance and energy density of the supercapacitors. The approach developed in this work offers an alternative strategy for developing novel stretchable energy devices with vertically aligned nanotubes or nanowires for advanced applications in stretchable, flexible, and wearable electronic systems.     

Ice Templated Free‐Standing Hierarchically WS2/CNT‐rGO Aerogel for High‐Performance Rechargeable Lithium and Sodium Ion Batteries

A hybrid nanoarchitecture aerogel composed of WS₂ nanosheets and carbon nanotube‐reduced graphene oxide (CNT‐rGO) with ordered microchannel three‐dimensional (3D) scaffold structure was synthesized by a simple solvothermal method followed by freeze‐drying and post annealing process. The 3D ordered microchannel structures not only provide good electronic transportation routes, but also provide excellent ionic conductive channels, leading to an enhanced electrochemical performance as anode materials both for lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) and sodium‐ion batteries (SIBs). Significantly, WS₂/CNT‐rGO aerogel nanostructure can deliver a specific capacity of 749 mA h g^?1 at 100 mA g^?1 and a high first‐cycle coulombic efficiency of 53.4% as the anode material of LIBs. In addition, it also can deliver a capacity of 311.4 mA h g^?1 at 100 mA g^?1, and retain a capacity of 252.9 mA h g^?1 at 200 mA g^?1 after 100 cycles as the anode electrode of SIBs. The excellent electrochemical performance is attributed to the synergistic effect between the WS₂ nanosheets and CNT‐rGO scaffold network and rational design of 3D ordered structure. These results demonstrate the potential applications of ordered CNT‐rGO aerogel platform to support transition‐metal‐dichalcogenides (i.e., WS₂) for energy storage devices and open up a route for material design for future generation energy storage devices.     

High‐Performance Fiber‐Shaped All‐Solid‐State Asymmetric Supercapacitors Based on Ultrathin MnO2 Nanosheet/Carbon Fiber Cathodes for Wearable Electronics

Flexible fiber‐shaped supercapacitors have shown great potential in portable and wearable electronics. However, small specific capacitance and low operating voltage limit the practical application of fiber‐shaped supercapacitors in high energy density devices. Herein, direct growth of ultrathin MnO₂ nanosheet arrays on conductive carbon fibers with robust adhesion is exhibited, which exhibit a high specific capacitance of 634.5 F g^?1 at a current density of 2.5 A g^?1 and possess superior cycle stability. When MnO₂ nanosheet arrays on carbon fibers and graphene on carbon fibers are used as a positive electrode and a negative electrode, respectively, in an all‐solid‐state asymmetric supercapacitor (ASC), the ASC displays a high specific capacitance of 87.1 F g^?1 and an exceptional energy density of 27.2 Wh kg^?1. In addition, its capacitance retention reaches 95.2% over 3000 cycles, representing the excellent cyclic ability. The flexibility and mechanical stability of these ASCs are highlighted by the negligible degradation of their electrochemical performance even under severely bending states. Impressively, as‐prepared fiber‐shaped ASCs could successfully power a photodetector based on CdS nanowires without applying any external bias voltage. The excellent performance of all‐solid‐state ASCs opens up new opportunity for development of wearable and self‐powered nanodevices in near future.     

Graphitic Petal Electrodes for All‐Solid‐State Flexible Supercapacitors

The charge storage characteristics of a composite nanoarchitecture with a highly functional 3D morphology are reported. The electrodes are formed by the electropolymerization of aniline monomers into a nanometer‐thick polyaniline (PANI) film that conformally coats graphitic petals (GPs) grown by microwave plasma chemical vapor deposition (MPCVD) on conductive carbon cloth (CC). The hybrid CC/GPs/PANI electrodes yield results near the theoretical maximum capacitance for PANI of 2000 F g^?1 (based on PANI mass) and a large area‐normalized specific capacitance of ≈2.6 F cm^?2 (equivalent to a volumetric capacitance of ≈230 F cm^?3) at a low current density of 1 A g^?1 (based on PANI mass). The specific capacitances remain above 1200 F g^?1 (based on PANI mass) for currents up to 100 A g^?1 with correspondingly high area‐normalized values. The hybrid electrodes also exhibit a high rate capability with an energy density of 110 Wh kg^?1 and a maximum power density of 265 kW kg^?1 at a current density of 100 A g^?1. Long‐term cyclic stability is good (≈7% loss of initial capacitance after 2000 cycles), with coulombic efficiencies >99%. Moreover, prototype all‐solid‐state flexible supercapacitors fabricated from these hybrid electrodes exhibit excellent energy storage performance.     

All‐Manganese‐Based Binder‐Free Stretchable Lithium‐Ion Batteries

Advanced electrode materials with bendability and stretchability are critical for the rapid development of fully flexible/stretchable lithium‐ion batteries. However, the sufficiently stretchable lithium‐ion battery is still underdeveloped that is one of the biggest challenges preventing from realizing fully deformable power sources. Here, a low‐temperature hydrothermal synthesis of a cathode material for stretchable lithium‐ion battery is reported by the in situ growth of LiMn₂O₄ (LMO) nanocrystals inside 3D carbon nanotube (CNT) film networks. The LMO/CNT film composite has demonstrated the chemical bonding between the LMO active materials and CNT scaffolds, which is the most important characteristic of the stretchable electrodes. When coupled with a wrinkled MnO_x /CNT film anode, a binder‐free, all‐manganese‐based stretchable full battery cell is assembled which delivers a high average specific capacity of ≈97 mA h g^?1 and stabilizes after over 300 cycles with an enormous strain of 100%. Furthermore, combining with other merits such as low cost, natural abundance, and environmentally friendly, the all‐manganese design is expected to accelerate the practical applications of stretchable lithium‐ion batteries for fully flexible and biomedical electronics.     

3D,Mutually Embedded MOF@Carbon Nanotube Hybrid Networks for High‐Performance Lithium‐Sulfur Batteries

Metal‐organic frameworks (MOFs) hybridized with a conductive matrix could potentially serve as a sulfur host for lithium‐sulfur (Li‐S) battery electrodes; so far most of the previously studied hybrid structures are in the powder form or thin compact films. This study reports 3D porous MOF@carbon nanotube (CNT) networks by grafting MOFs with tailored particle size uniformly throughout a CNT sponge skeleton. Growing larger‐size MOF particles to entrap the conductive CNT network yields a mutually embedded structure with high stability, and after sulfur encapsulation, it shows an initial discharge capacity of ≈1380 mA h g^?1 (at 0.1 C) and excellent cycling stability with a very low fading rate. Furthermore, owing to the 3D porous network that is suitable for enhanced sulfur loading, a remarkable areal capacity of ≈11 mA h cm^?2 (at 0.1 C) is obtained, which is much higher than other MOF‐based hybrid electrodes. The mutually embedded MOF@CNTs with simultaneously high specific capacity, areal capacity, and cycling stability represent an advanced candidate for developing high‐performance Li‐S batteries and other energy storage systems.     

Fabrication of N‐doped Graphene–Carbon Nanotube Hybrids from Prussian Blue for Lithium–Sulfur Batteries

Hybrid nanostructures containing 1D carbon nanotubes and 2D graphene sheets have many promising applications due to their unique physical and chemical properties. In this study, the authors find Prussian blue (dehydrated sodium ferrocyanide) can be converted to N‐doped graphene–carbon nanotube hybrid materials through a simple one‐step pyrolysis process. Through field emission scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X‐ray diffraction, Raman spectra, atomic force microscopy, and isothermal analyses, the authors identify that 2D graphene and 1D carbon nanotubes are bonded seamlessly during the growth stage. When used as the sulfur scaffold for lithium–sulfur batteries, it demonstrates outstanding electrochemical performance, including a high reversible capacity (1221 mA h g^?1 at 0.2 C rate), excellent rate capability (458 and 220 mA h g^?1 at 5 and 10 C rates, respectively), and excellent cycling stability (321 and 164 mA h g^?1 at 5 and 10 C (1 C = 1673 mA g^?1) after 1000 cycles). The enhancement of electrochemical performance can be attributed to the 3D architecture of the hybrid material, in which, additionally, the nitrogen doping generates defects and active sites for improved interfacial adsorption. Furthermore, the nitrogen doping enables the effective trapping of lithium polysulfides on electroactive sites within the cathode, leading to a much‐improved cycling performance. Therefore, the hybrid material functions as a redox shuttle to catenate and bind polysulfides, and convert them to insoluble lithium sulfide during reduction. The strategy reported in this paper could open a new avenue for low cost synthesis of N‐doped graphene–carbon nanotube hybrid materials for high performance lithium–sulfur batteries.     

High‐Efficiency Large‐Area Carbon Nanotube‐Silicon Solar Cells

Currently studied carbon nanotube‐silicon (CNT‐Si) solar cells are based on relatively small active areas (typically <0.15 cm²); increasing the active area generally leads to reduced power conversion efficiencies. This study reports CNT‐Si solar cells with active areas of more than 2 cm² for single cells, yet still achieving cell efficiencies of about 10%, which is the first time for CNT‐Si solar cells with an active area more than 1 cm² to reach the level for real applications. In this work, a controlled number of flattened highly conductive CNT strips is added, in simple arrangement, to form a CNT‐Si solar cell with CNT strips in which the middle film makes heterojunctions with Si while the top strips act as self‐similar top electrodes, like conventional metal grids. The CNT strips, directly condensed from as‐grown CNT films, not only improve the CNT‐Si junctions, but also enhance the conductivity of top electrodes without introducing contact barrier when the CNT strips are added onto the film. This property may facilitate the development of large‐area high‐performance CNT or graphene‐Si solar cells.     

Boron Element Nanowires Electrode for Supercapacitors

The pursuit of new categories of active materials as electrodes of supercapacitors remains a great challenge. Herein, for the first time, elemental boron as a superior electrode material of supercapacitors is reported, which exhibits significantly high capacitances and excellent rate performance in all alkaline, neutral, and acidic electrolytes. Notably, boron nanowire‐carbon fiber cloth (BNWs‐CFC) electrodes achieve a capacitance up to 42.8 mF cm^?2 at a scan rate of 5 mV s^?1 and 60.2 mF cm^?2 at a current density of 0.2 mA cm^?2 in the acidic electrolyte. Moreover, in all these three kinds of electrolytes, BNWs‐CFC electrodes demonstrate a decent cycling stability with >80% capacitance retention after 8000 charging/discharging cycles. The Dominating energy storage mechanism of BNWs in the different electrolytes is analyzed by looking into the kinetics of the electrochemical process. Subsequently, the BNWs‐CFC electrode is used to fabricate a flexible solid‐state supercapacitor, which reveals a specific capacitance up to 22.73 mF cm^?2 and good mechanical performance after 1000 bending cycles. This study opens a new avenue to explore elemental boron‐based new nanomaterials for the application of energy storage with superior electrochemical performance.     

A High Areal Capacity Flexible Lithium‐Ion Battery with a Strain‐Compliant Design

Early demonstrations of wearable devices have driven interest in flexible lithium‐ion batteries. Previous demonstrations of flexible lithium‐ion batteries trade off between low areal capacity, poor mechanical flexibility and/or high thickness of inactive components. Here, a reinforced electrode design is used to support the active layers of the battery and a freestanding carbon nanotube (CNT) layer is used as the current collector. The supported architecture helps to increase the areal capacity (mAh cm^‐2) of the battery and improve the tensile strength and mechanical flexibility of the electrodes. Batteries based on lithium cobalt oxide and lithium titanate oxide shows excellent electrochemical and mechanical performance. The battery has an areal capacity of ≈1 mAh cm^‐2 and a capacity retention of around 94% after cycling the battery for 450 cycles at a C/2 rate. The reinforced electrode has a tensile strength of ≈5.5–7.0 MPa and shows excellent capacity retention after repeatedly flexing to a bending radius ranging from 45 to 10 mm. The relationships between mechanical flexing, electrochemical performance, and mechanical integrity of the battery are studied using electrochemical cycling, electron microscopy, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS).     

Phase Transformation Induced Capacitance Activation for 3D Graphene‐CoO Nanorod Pseudocapacitor

Development of a pseudocapacitor over the integration of metal oxide on carbonaceous materials is a promising step towards energy storage devices with high energy and power densities. Here, a self‐assembled cobalt oxide (CoO) nanorod cluster on three‐dimensional graphene (CoO‐3DG) is synthesized through a facile hydrothermal method followed by heat treatment. As an additive‐free electrode, CoO‐3DG exhibits good electrochemical performance. Compared with CoO nanorod clusters grown on Ni foam (i.e., CoO‐Ni, ≈680 F g^?1 at 1 A g^?1 and ≈400 F g^?1 at 20 A g^?1), CoO‐3DG achieves much higher capacitance (i.e., ≈980 F g^?1 at 1 A g^?1 and ≈600 F g^?1 at 20 A g^?1) with excellent cycling stability of 103% retention of specific capacitance after 10 000 cycles. Furthermore, it shows an interesting activation process and instability with a redox reaction for CoO. In addition, the phase transformation from CoO nanorods to Co₃O₄ nanostructures was observed and investigated after charge and discharge process, which suggests the activation kinetics and the phase transformable nature of CoO based nanostructure. These observations demonstrate phase transformation with morphological change induced capacitance increasement in the emergent class of metal oxide materials for electrochemical energy storage device.     

Hybrid Membranes Dispersed with Superhydrophilic TiO2 Nanotubes Toward Ultra‐Stable and High‐Performance Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries

The vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) is a large‐scale energy storage technique and has been regarded as a promising candidate to integrate intermittent renewable energy with the grid. Its long‐term stability has so far been limited by the core component, an ion exchange membrane with low ion selectivity. Here a hybrid membrane with superhydrophilic TiO₂ nanotubes dispersed in a Nafion matrix is reported. The VRFB single cell with the hybrid membrane exhibits an impressive performance with high coulombic efficiency (CE, ≈98.3%) and outstanding energy efficiency (EE, ≈84.4%) at 120 mA cm^?2, which is higher than that of the commercial Nafion 212 membrane (CE, ≈94.5%; EE, ≈79.2%). More importantly, the cell maintains a discharge capacity of ≈55.7% after 1400 cycles (over 518 h), in obvious contrast to that of ≈20% after only 410 cycles for the one using commercial Nafion 212. This is attributed to the high ion selectivity of the hybrid membrane, because of, 1) the blocked and elongated ion diffusion pathway induced by the dispersed nanotubes and 2) binding and alignment of the sulfonic acid groups on nanotube surface. The high‐performance membranes may also find important applications in other fields, such as fuel cells, dialytic batteries, and water treatment.     

Going Beyond Lithium Hybrid Capacitors: Proposing a New High‐Performing Sodium Hybrid Capacitor System for Next‐Generation Hybrid Vehicles Made with Bio‐Inspired Activated Carbon

A novel sodium hybrid capacitor (NHC) is constructed with an intercalation‐type sodium material [carbon coated‐Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃, C‐NVP] and high surface area‐activated carbon derived from an eco‐friendly resource cinnamon sticks (CDCs) in an organic electrolyte. This novel NHC possesses a combination of high energy and high power density, along with remarkable electrochemical stability. In addition, the C‐NVP/CDC system outperforms present, well‐established lithium hybrid capacitor systems in all areas, and can thus be added to the list of candidates for future electric vehicles. A careful optimization of mass balance between electrode materials enables the C‐NVP/CDC cell to exhibit extraordinary capacitance performance. This novel NHC produces an energy density of 118 Wh kg^?1 at a specific power of 95 W kg^?1 and retains an energy density of 60 Wh kg^?1 with high specific power of 850 W kg^?1. Furthermore, a discharge capacitance of 53 F g^?1 is obtained from the C‐NVP/CDC cell at a 1 mA cm^?2 current density, along with 95% capacitance retention, even after 10 000 cycles. The sluggish kinetics of the Na ion battery system is successfully overcome by developing a stable, high‐performing NHC system.     

CoNi2S4‐Graphene‐2D‐MoSe2 as an Advanced Electrode Material for Supercapacitors

3D CoNi₂S₄‐graphene‐2D‐MoSe₂ (CoNi₂S₄‐G‐MoSe₂) nanocomposite is designed and prepared using a facile ultrasonication and hydrothermal method for supercapacitor (SC) applications. Because of the novel nanocomposite structures and resultant maximized synergistic effect among ultrathin MoSe₂ nanosheets, highly conductive graphene and CoNi₂S₄ nanoparticles, the electrode exhibits rapid electron and ion transport rate and large electroactive surface area, resulting in its amazing electrochemical properties. The CoNi₂S₄‐G‐MoSe₂ electrode demonstrates a maximum specific capacitance of 1141 F g^?1, with capacitance retention of ≈108% after 2000 cycles at a high charge–discharge current density of 20 A g^?1. As to its symmetric device, 109 F g^?1 at a scan rate of 5 mV s^?1 is exhibited. This pioneering work should be helpful in enhancing the capacitive performance of SC materials by designing nanostructures with efficient synergetic effects.     

Structure‐Controlled,Vertical Graphene‐Based,Binder‐Free Electrodes from Plasma‐Reformed Butter Enhance Supercapacitor Performance

Vertical graphene nanosheets (VGNS) hold great promise for high‐performance supercapacitors owing to their excellent electrical transport property, large surface area and in particular, an inherent three‐dimensional, open network structure. However, it remains challenging to materialise the VGNS‐based supercapacitors due to their poor specific capacitance, high temperature processing, poor binding to electrode support materials, uncontrollable microstructure, and non‐cost effective way of fabrication. Here we use a single‐step, fast, scalable, and environmentally‐benign plasma‐enabled method to fabricate VGNS using cheap and spreadable natural fatty precursor butter, and demonstrate the controllability over the degree of graphitization and the density of VGNS edge planes. Our VGNS employed as binder‐free supercapacitor electrodes exhibit high specific capacitance up to 230 F g^?1 at a scan rate of 10 mV s^?1 and >99% capacitance retention after 1,500 charge‐discharge cycles at a high current density, when the optimum combination of graphitic structure and edge plane effects is utilised. The energy storage performance can be further enhanced by forming stable hybrid MnO₂/VGNS nano‐architectures which synergistically combine the advantages from both VGNS and MnO₂. This deterministic and plasma‐unique way of fabricating VGNS may open a new avenue for producing functional nanomaterials for advanced energy storage devices.