Child growth and adult physique in Brazillan Xingu Indians

Data on stature, sitting height, biacromial width, and some other body measurements on 267 children and 363 adults of the Xingu Indians of Brazil have been analyzed. Adult height shows no significant decrease with age over an age range of 20–50 years, thus indicating the absence of secular changes. The average Xingu child seems to be around the twenty-fifth to fiftieth centile for height of British children (if our age estimates are correct) until about ten years in girls and 14 years in boys, but ends at below the third British centile as an adult. In sitting height, however, the Indians show substantially lower values, with children being at about the fifteenth centile until ten years in girls and 14 years in boys, while the adults are considerably below the British third centile. Other comparisons show that the Xingu are taller than Surinam Indians although of similar shoulder width. The lack of anthropometric data concerning South American Indian adults, and more especially children has been stressed. Investigations of these populations facing rapid acculturation and possible assimilation will form a baseline for the future work in public health as contacts with non-Indians increase.     

哈萨克族学生体质发育状况的10年比较分析

报道新疆阿勒泰地区1995年2589名城镇7—18岁哈萨克族(哈族)中小学生身高、体重、胸围、坐高、肩宽、骨盆宽6项体质发育指标的调查结果。男女生体质发育指标随年龄增加而增长,各项指标的年均增长值皆为男生大于女生。与1985年比较,哈族学生的身高、体重、胸围皆有不同程度增长。哈族男女生的身高突增年龄仍分别为14岁和10岁,但是其身高增长却不伴有相应比例的坐高增长,女生部分年龄组的肩宽和男女生各年龄组的骨盆宽呈现负增长,提示哈族学生的体型与10年前相比已经开始有所改变。     

Secular trends in anthropometrical measurements observed in three to 11-year-old French children between 1953 and 2005

This study covers a fifty-year period between 1953 and 2005 and looks at secular trends in stature, weight and sitting height sizes among French boys and girls between the ages of 3 and 11. A special modelling in function to the age and variable for each child was established so that a comparison could be made in the kinetic growth patterns over these same two periods. Statistical analysis shows a significant increase in growth, of 0.8cm per decade in stature, characterised by a certain increase in the lower limbs and the weight (0.8kg per decade) together with a proportional increase on the body mass index. Positive secular trends of this anthropometric nature are generally thanks to improved eating and sanitary habits and this study enables us to build and elaborate new standards in growth patterns essential for monitoring auxological development in 3 to 11-year-old children in the years 2000 and onwards.     

Application of Body Mass Index According to Height-Age in Short and Tall Children

Background

In children with either delayed or accelerated growth, expressing the body mass index (BMI) to chronological age might lead to invalid body composition estimates. Reference to height-age has been suggested for such populations; however its validity has not been demonstrated.

Methods

Anthropometric data of healthy children were obtained from the German KiGGS survey. We selected three samples with different height distributions representing short stature (mean height SDS: -1.6), normal stature (height SDS: 0), and tall stature (height SDS: +1.6), and compared BMI-for-age and BMI-for-height-age between these samples across the paediatric age range. Differences between samples were tested using Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance and permutation tests.

Results

At a given age, BMI was distributed towards lower values in short, and towards higher values in tall subjects as compared to a population with average height distribution. Expressing BMI to height-age eliminated these differences in boys with a short stature from 4 years to 14 years of age, in tall boys from 4 to 16 years, in short girls aged 2-10 years or tall girls aged 2-17 years.

Conclusion

From late infancy to adolescent age, BMI distribution co-varies with height distribution and referencing to height-age appears appropriate within this age period. However, caution is needed when data about pubertal status are absent.     

Growth and somatotype patterns of manus children,territory of Papua and New Guinea: Application of a modified somatotype method to the study of growth patterns

The growth and somatotype patterns of Manus children, Territory of Papua and New Guinea, reflected in anthropometric measurements and somatotype photographs, is reported for 438 children, ranging from 15 months of age to maturity. Somatotype distributions and individual somatotype photographs indicate little difference between boys and girls from age 1 to 4 years; between age 5 and 9 years boys shift toward higher second component ratings; between age 10 and 18 years boys shift toward higher second and third component ratings, while girls shift toward higher first and third component ratings. Four sample somatotype photographs are representative of the population at age 10 and 14 years, and show age and sex characters easily noted visually. Comparison of height, weight and subscapula skinfold values show that the Manus children resemble the Kaiapit and Bundi children of the New Guinea highlands populations reported by Malcolm in the form of their growth curves but not in growth rates. Manus children grow more slowly than the British, but faster than the Kaiapit and Bundi children. While low skinfold values and height/weight ratios derived from means for height and weight suggest somatotypic similarity of the Manus, Kaiapit and Bundi populations, somatotype photographs are needed for confirmation. Lacking historical information and genetic evidence, we can speculare that diet, nutrition, climate and perhaps physical activity are factors which influence the growth patterns of these populations. The protein intake derived from fish and other seafood may be an important factor in the relatively fast growth and earlier maturation of the Manus. Malcolm thinks that low protein intake plays an important role with the Kaiapit and Bundi, but does not rule out survival value of slow growth and short stature.     

Relative lower extremity length in Mexican American and in American black and white youth

Stature, sitting height, estimated leg (subischial) length and the sitting height/stature ratio are compared in Mexican American, American White and American Black boys 9 through 14 years of age and girls 12 through 17 years of age. Mexican American youth are shorter in stature and have absolutely shorter lower extremities. The sitting height of Mexican American youth is similar to that of Black youth and shorter than that of White youth. The sitting height/stature ratio is virtually identical in Mexican American and White youth, indicating similar proportions of lower extremities to stature. In contrast, Black youth have absolutely and relatively longer lower extremities than Mexican American and White youth. These results would thus seem to suggest that reference data for the body mass index (BMI) based on American White youth can be used with Mexican American youth, while race-specific values may be necessary for American Black youth. However, ethnic variation in physique, perhaps frame size, may be a factor which should be more systematically considered in evaluating the utility of the body mass index.     

Stature and body weight growth patterns from longitudinal data of Japanese children born during World War II

Stature and body weight data of 100 boys and 100 girls from 7 to 17 years of age in Shimodate City who were born during World War II were longitudinally analyzed. The children were significantly smaller and lighter throughout their growth period than those born 11 years after the end of the war. The correlation coefficient between statures at each age and at age 17 showed a gradual increase with increasing age, while that between statures at each age and at age 7 decreased with age. However, a drop in the correlation coefficient was found during puberty, at age 11 for girls and at age 13 for boys. Comparing the normalized distance from mean values of stature and body weight at age 7, at puberty, and at age 17, only 51% of the children continued to be in the same relative position for both height and weight, 6% of boys and 4% of girls showing a decreasing pattern for both and 4% of boys and 7% of girls showing an increasing pattern for both. Thus, about 60% of the children of either sex presented parallel stature and body weight growth patterns for ages from 7 to 17.     

Longitudinal analysis of adolescent growth of ladino and Mayan school children in Guatemala: effects of environment and sex.

The rate of growth in height and the timing of adolescent growth events are analyzed for two samples of Guatemalan children. One sample includes Mayan school children, 33 boys and 12 girls between the ages of 5.00 to 17.99 years, living under poor conditions for growth and development. The second sample includes ladino children, 78 boys and 85 girls of the same age range, living under favorable conditions for growth. The Preece-Baines model I function is used to estimate mean values for rates and timing of childhood and adolescent growth events for the two groups. Significant statistical contrasts (t-tests) of these means show Mayan boys reach the age of "take-off" (TO; the onset of the adolescent growth spurt) 1.45 years later, achieve peak height velocity (PHV) 1.68 years later, and continue growing for about 2.0 years longer than do the ladino boys. Despite the Mayan boys' increased duration for growth they grow significantly more slowly than the ladinos. Mayan boys are 6.60 cm shorter than ladinos at the age of TO and are estimated to be 7.71 cm shorter than the ladinos at adulthood. Mayan girls reach the age of TO 0.93 years later than do the ladina girls, but the two groups do not differ in the age at PHV or the age at adulthood. The mean height of Mayan girls is significantly less than that of ladinas at the age of TO (6.5 cm), and this difference increases to an estimated 11.14 cm at adulthood. Possible causes of these ethnic and sex-related differences in amounts and rates of growth are discussed in relation to hypotheses about the genetic and environmental determinants of human development.     

遗传和环境因素对儿童青少年身体高度及其比例的影响

目前有关儿童青少年坐高、下肢长及其比值的报道多为非双生子人群的研究。为了解遗传和环境因素对儿童青少年坐高、下肢长及坐高与下肢长比值影响的相对大小,我们对796对6～18岁双生子的身高和坐高进行了测量,计算下肢长及坐高与下肢长比值,采用结构方程模型分析其遗传和环境相对效应。结果发现,校正年龄后,男女15～18岁年龄组坐高和下肢长的遗传度(0.63～0.78)均分别高于同性别低年龄段儿童青少年(0.31～0.68);坐高与下肢长比值的遗传度除9～11岁女生(0.84)外,其他年龄组均较低(男0.16～0.46,女0.21～0.57);共同环境因素和特殊环境因素对6～14岁儿童青少年各指标的作用较大。本研究提示,在快速发育时期,坐高、下肢长和坐高与下肢长比值对环境因素更为敏感,遗传度较低;机体越成熟,其遗传效应更强。     

Do American born Japanese children still grow faster than native Japanese?

Growth patterns of Japanese schoolchildren in Hawaii, composed of 2,954 boys and 3,213 girls aged between 11 and 17, were compared with those comparable groups of Japanese schoolchildren in Japan based on the data published by the Japanese Ministry of Education. Growth characteristics studied were height, weight, and relative weight index, weight/(height). The Hawaii-Japanese boys were taller at early ages but the difference disappeared by age 16. Native Japanese girls were shorter than Hawaii-Japanese until age 13, but they overtook the latter by age 14, exceeding them in height after age 15. A similar pattern was found in weights of girls but the Hawaii-Japanese boys remained consistently heavier by 5.0 to 9.0 kg than native Japanese. The relative weight measure indicated that the Hawaii boys were more "obese" than native Japanese boys for the growth period studied; whereas the same tendency was maintained until age 15 in girls. These observations indicate a marked degree of convergence of the patterns of physical growth of the two populations, whose differences were unmistakably in favor of American born children in earlier studies. It is concluded that the convergence is due largely to the improved environmental conditions in Japan in recent years.     

Assessment of the physical development and physical fitness of children and youths with simple body height deficiency

The aim of this work is an analysis of the process of growth and an assessment of the physical fitness of children and youths with short stature. The material contains results of a long-term investigation of the growth of boys and girls with the diagnosis: simple body height deficiency (hypostatura simplex). The investigation was carried out in Swietokrzyskie Province, Poland, in the years 1980-1997. It comprised 471 individuals: 143 girls aged 5-18 years and 328 boys aged 5-19 years. A different degree of the skeleton age is connected with a different dynamic of growth of short-stature girls and boys. Pubescent increase in the rate of growth occurs in individuals with a considerable retardation of the bone age later, particularly among boys. The growth process lasts longer in them, therefore, the final body height is achieved later and it is greater in individuals whose bone age is concordant with the calendar age. The level of physical working capacity of short-stature children does not show any significant difference in comparison with that in individuals with correct body height, and relative values of the indicators of physical fitness, related to body mass, are even higher in short-stature children. Individuals with a greater body height deficiency are characterised by a lower level of physical fitness.     

北京市幼儿园2—6岁儿童生长情况

1985年5月—8月,作者对北京市幼儿园833名2—6岁儿童进行了人体测量调查,并对所获得的数据进行了统计分析。结果表明2—6岁儿童身高增长较快,平均每年增加70毫米,身体各部分的长度变化基本与身高的增长相协调;围度的变异范围大于长度的变异范围。同1975年调查结果相比,儿童的体重、身高、胸围等项目数值都有所增加,但身高的增加速度已减慢。     

Sex differences in height and sitting height in the Belgian population

Sex differences in growth were studied in a longitudinal study of 39 boys and 31 girls for sitting height. Individual growth patterns were determined by means of Preece Baines model 1. The results showed no significant bias in the fits of height and sitting height in boys and girls. Girls fits were significantly better than those of the boys for both height and sitting height. Univariate analysis by means of Mann-Whitney test showed significant sex differences for all function and biological parameters of height and sitting height excepted for s₁ parameter (the rate constant controlling pubertal velocity). Linear discriminant analysis revealed that the strongest sex differences for the timing and size parameters at adolescent. Peak velocity at adolescent was slightly less discriminating between the two sexes and velocity at take-off showed the least sex difference. These trends were similar for height and sitting height. Decomposition of sex differences in adult size showed that the major contributor to adult the sex differences is the effect of the later onset of the adolescent growth spurt in boys than in girls. Sex differences in adult phenotypes of height and sitting height are to a slightly lesser extent due to the greater adolescent gain in boys while prepubertal sex differences are almost negligible.     

Socioeconomic variation in the growth status of children in a subsistence agricultural community

Socioeconomic variation in the growth status of 293 children, 6 through 13 years of age, from a rural subsistence agricultural community in southern Mexico was considered. Socioeconomic status was based on an index developed from landholdings, household goods, and occupation, and households were classified as high and low status. Growth measurements included weight, stature, sitting height, estimated leg length, arm and estimated arm muscle circumferences, triceps skinfold, and right gripping strength. The growth status of boys showed a clear socioeconomic differential, while that of girls did not. The results are consistent with the generalization that males are more influenced by environmental stresses than females, including, of course, the favorable stress of improved socioeconomic circumstances, even within seemingly single-class rural communities.     

Precocious or early puberty and growth failure in girls treated for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia

We have studied 41 children with early or precocious puberty who have been treated for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia with prophylactic cranial irradiation (1,800-2,400 cGy) accompanied by intrathecal methotrexate and systemic chemotherapy. Mean age at radiotherapy was 3.9 years (range 1.7-7.7) in the girls and 4.8 years (range 2.6-7.8) in the boys. Mean age at the onset of puberty was 8.6 years (range 6.7-9.7) in the girls and 9.3 years (range 7.8-10.3) in the boys. Of the 41 children with early puberty (greater than 1.4 SD from the mean) 36 were females and 5 were males. 21 of the 36 girls had an absent or inadequate growth acceleration of puberty. 7 of 12 girls who had a pharmacological test of growth hormone (GH) secretion had GH insufficiency (peak level less than 20 mU/l). Early or precocious puberty combined with GH insufficiency may produce severe growth failure and we have used a treatment regimen of a gonadotrophin-releasing hormone analogue, in order to reduce the rate of epiphyseal maturation, combined with biosynthetic GH to increase or sustain growth rate. We have treated 4 girls in this manner. During a mean treatment period of 0.86 years, height SDS for bone age rose from a mean of -1.06 to -0.59. Longer treatment periods will be required to assess the effect on final height.     

Growth attainments of well-off chandigarh children: A mixed longitudinal study

Distance and velocity pattern of growth for body weight and height of 134 well-off Chandigarh boys aged 9–17 years, and 109 girls aged 9 to 16 years were studied following a mixedlongitudinal growth study design. For both body weight and height pattern-wise, Chandigarh boys showed close similarity with their American counterparts up to about 13 years of age, while girls did so till 12 years. Where after, Chandigarh children remained lighter and shorter than those of American origin and this differential may be explained on racial grounds rather than nutritional ones since all children included in this study remained free from dietary and other health related constraints. Marginally, higher height growth attainments noticed in Chandigarh children in contrast to their other Indian counterparts during initial years of adolescence shows that Chandigarh children are in process of expressing their genetic growth potential to its full which has not yet been fully achieved. The rate (velocity) of weight and height growth in Chandigarh children remained substatially lower than their sex-matched British counterparts throught the period of study. PHV in boys measured 6.4 cm/yr. and 5.4 cm/yr. in girls. It was attained at the age of 11.5 years in girls and 12.5 years in boys. Peak weight velocity in boys averaged 3.7 kg/yr., while it measured 4.6 kg/yr. in girls. In girls (11.5 yr.), PWV too was attained earlier than boys (13.5 yr.) by two years. The shorter height and lighter weight growth attainments noticed in Chandigarh children in contrast to their Western counterparts may be attributed to slower and lesser magnitude peak growth velocities recorded in Chandigarh children. The use of values presented has been recommended to monitor and assess growth attainments of Indian children residing in the Union Territory of Chandigarh.     

Estimating height from arm span measurement in Malawian children

Arm span and standing height were measured in 289 boys and 337 girls aged 6-15 years who were free from physical deformities which can affect stature or arm span. The arm span exceeded height in all age groups of boys and in older girls. At the age of 7, 11 and 12 years girls were significantly taller than the boys and had longer arm span while at the age of 15 years, the trend was opposite. The mean difference between the two anthropometric parameters for boys was 5.45 +/- 4.21 cm (t = 3.556, p < 0.001) and for girls was 4.94 +/- 4.96 cm (t = 3.542, p < 0.001). Correlation coefficient between height and arm span measurements for Malawian boys was 0.983 and for girls was 0.986. Height, arm span and height-arm span difference increased with age of children while height to arm span ratio decreased. The gender difference in height-arm span differences was only significant at the age of 15 years. Multiple regression and cross validation were performed. Height of Malawian children of both sexes can be estimated from equation: Height (cm) = 15.756 + (0.168 x age) + (0.839 x arm span) (SEE = 0.760, R2 = 0.988).     

Gender-specific growth patterns of transversal body dimensions in Croatian children and youth (2 to 18 years of age)

In a cross-sectional study of growth, 5,260 healthy children of both sexes from Zagreb (Croatia) aged 2 to 18 years were measured. Six transversal body dimensions were studied: biacromial, transverse chest, antero-posterior chest, biiliocristal, bicondylar humerus and bicondylar femur diamters. A significant increase in body diameters has been observed until the age of 14 to 15 in girls and until the age of 16 in boys, showing that girls have a 1 to 2 years shorter period of growth. Compared to boys of the same age, they achieved larger amounts of final transversal bone size throughout the whole growth period. The most pronounced example was the knee diameter that in girls attained 95% of adult size as early as the age of 10. In both genders, the adult size is achieved earlier in widths of the extremities than in those of the trunk. The studied transversal body segments showed different growth dynamics, which is gender-specific. While sexual dimorphism in pelvic and shoulder diameters emerged with pubertal spurt, gender differences in chest and extremities' diameters started early in life. In all ages, boys had larger chest, elbow and knee diameters. In pubertal age boys gained a significantly larger biacromial diameter (from the age of 13 onwards), while girls exceeded them in biiliocristal diameter (from 10 to 14 years). The findings of gender differences were compared to those reported for other European populations and their growth patters were discussed comparing viewpoints.     

Growth curves of children with Down syndrome.

Growth curves of 105 children with Down syndrome (50 boys and 55 girls) were established. At birth height, weight and head circumference of Down syndrome children were lower than these parameters in controls. This delay remained stable until puberty. For weight there was no clear-cut pubertal growth spurt. For stature, the prepubertal growth spurt occurred earlier (at the age of 11 years in boys and 9 1/2 years in girls) than in controls but was less marked. As a result, Down syndrome patients had a short stature with a quite normal weight. These reference curves, available since prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome is performed routinely, are helpful for monitoring normal and abnormal development in Down syndrome patients.     

Growth pattern of the Kamars--a primitive tribe of Chhattisgarh,India

A cross sectional study of the physical growth status was made on 655 Kamar children (341 boys and 314 girls), aged 5 to 18 years, in the Raipur district of Chhattisgarh. The study aimed to find out the growth pattern of the Kamar children, which is considered to be a primitive tribe of Chhattisgarh, India and was compared with another Indian tribe and the official data for all India (ICMR). Anthropometric measurements included height, weight, sitting height, biacromial diameter, biilliocrystal diameter, upper arm circumference, calf circumference and measurements of the triceps and subscapular skinfolds. All anthropometric measurements except skinfold thickness exhibit uniform increase with age in both sexes. However, when height and weight of the Kamar boys and girls were compared with the data for other tribes and for all India, the Kamar children (both boys and girls) indicated lower weight and height and the difference showed to be significant, for almost all ages. Kamar boys showed higher anthropometric values than girls in almost all measurements except in biilliocrystal diameter and in measured skinfolds. Poor socio-economic status of this primitive tribe may be one of the reasons for this poor growth pattern. However, in-depth study is necessary in order to arrive at any basic conclusions and to recommend any policy and interventions.