THE STRUCTURE AND FORMATION OF CILIA AND FILAMENTS IN RUMEN PROTOZOA

The large oligotrich rumen protozoa Diplodinium ecaudatum and Ophryoscolex caudatus have been studied by electron microscopy during interphase and division. The structure of mature cilia is contrasted with that seen during their formation particularly in a tuft where development lags and is arrested. Here the shaft is only a few micra long and is composed of filaments that have circular cross-sections not in the typical circular arrangement. In their diameter and appearance the filaments are similar to filaments associated with the nuclei during division. The macronucleus has within it randomly directed filaments, while the micronucleus contains well aligned filaments and other arrangements typical of an intranuclear mitotic process. An extranuclear filament system is also present and is elaborated during division. The infraciliary filament system is particularly elaborate in these organisms. Filaments ranging from 14 to 22 mµ have been observed with some tendency for a bimodal distribution in diameters of 15 and 21 mµ. Formation of such filaments has been observed and consists of an initial orientation of very fine elements followed by filament formation. The observations are discussed in relation to filament involvements in cell movements. The concepts are discussed that filaments are metastable structures and that the transitions from one state to another are functionally significant.     

THE FORMATION AND STRUCTURE OF MYELIN SHEATHS IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The development and structure of myelin sheaths have been studied in the optic nerves of rats and of Xenopus laevis tadpoles. Both potassium permanganate- and osmium-fixed material was examined with the electron microscope. In the first stage of myelinogenesis the nerve fibre is surrounded by a cell process which envelops it and forms a mesaxon. The mesaxon then elongates into a loose spiral from which the cytoplasm is later excluded, so that compact myelin is formed. This process is similar to myelinogenesis in the peripheral nervous system, although in central fibres the cytoplasm on the outside of the myelin is confined in a tongue-like process to a fraction of the circumference, leaving the remainder of the sheath uncovered, so that contacts are possible between adjacent myelin sheaths. The structure of nodes in the central nervous system has been described and it is suggested that the oligodendrocytes may be the myelin-forming cells.     

THE STRUCTURE AND FORMATION OF PROTEIN GRANULES IN THE FAT BODY OF AN INSECT

In the larva of the butterfly Calpodes ethlius, the fat body begins to store protein in the form of granules at about 30 to 35 hours before pupation, at a time when the endocuticle is being resorbed. At least two sorts of granule can be distinguished. The first granules to arise are those within vesicles of the Golgi complex. These may increase in size by incorporating material from microvesicles at their surface and by coalescence with one another. Later, at about 10 hours before pupation, another sort of granule arises by the isolation of regions of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) within paired membranes derived from Golgi vesicles. Several of these ER isolation bodies coalesce, with fusion of their outer isolating membranes. The ribosomes and membranes may then disappear and the granules become indistinguishable from the protein granules formed from Golgi vesicles, or the ribosomes may remain and be embedded in dense crystalline protein, forming a storage body for both protein and RNA. Mitochondria are isolated within paired membranes in the same way as regions of the ER. The isolated mitochondria also coalesce in a similar manner. When the inner membranes are lost, the structure of a group of isolation bodies is indistinguishable from that of a cytolysome. Isolation within paired membranes, as described here, may be of general importance in segregating regions of massive lysis or massive sequestration.     

STRUCTURE AND FORMATION OF THE BYSSUS COMPLEX IN MYTILUS (MOLLUSCA, BIVALVIA)

A review is presented of the mechanism of byssus productionin the genus Mytilus. The pedal glands which secrete the byssusmaterial are described, followed by an account of the morphology,structure and chemistry of the byssus itself. Finally, the releaseor shedding of the byssus from the pedal tissues is discussed. (Received 10 November 1981;     

单种群菌落分形结构的形成及其机制研究

在变形杆菌、绿脓杆菌单种群菌落分形结构的形成过程中,细菌的运动、潜－生序变化及环境的营养水平是菌落形成扩散限制聚合模型（ＤＬＡ）分数维图样的关键。对菌落环境的分析结果显示单种群菌落中非平衡环境的形成是菌落分形结构产生的根本机制     

FORMATION AND STRUCTURE OF THE SPORE OF BACILLUS COAGULANS

Spore formation in Bacillus coagulans has been studied by electron microscopy using an epoxy resin (Araldite) embedding technique. The developmental stages from the origin of the initial spore septum to the mature spore were investigated. The two forespore membranes developed from the double layer of cytoplasmic membrane. The cortex was progressively deposited between these two membranes. The inner membrane finally became the spore protoplasmic membrane, and the outer membrane part of the inner spore coat or the outer spore coat itself. In the mature spore the completed integuments around the spore protoplasm consisted of the cortex, a laminated inner coat, and a dense outer coat. No exosporium was observed. The method of formation of the cortex and the spore coats is discussed.     

WALL STRUCTURE AND LATERAL FORMATION IN THE ALGA BRYOPSIS

Green , Paul B. (U. Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.) Wall structure and lateral formation in the alga Bryopsis. Amer. Jour. Bot. 47(6) : 476–481. Illus. 1960.—The large multinucleate cells of Bryopsis pennata regularly produce laterals at the apical tip. Cells were freed of protoplasm and the remaining cell wall was flattened and studied in polarized light and interference microscopes. Both the cylindrical main axis and the cylindrical laterals are negatively birefringent and thus apparently have generally a transverse arrangement of microfibrils. Lateral formation is first seen in the formation of round fields of concentric microfibrils on the main axis which persist as lateral-bases. The center of a field protrudes, making a small out-pouching of the main axis. The thin-walled protrusion increases first mostly in diameter and then in length to make a lateral. There is a definite correlation between wall structure (optical anisotropy) and cell shape in Bryopsis.     

淡水贝类贝壳多层构造形成研究

对几种淡水贝（包括蚌、螺）进行形态及组织学观察，并通过实验方法重现贝壳三种物质，即：角质、棱柱质、珍珠质的生成过程，结果表明：外套膜外表皮细胞是由相同类型细胞组成，这些相同细胞在不同的作用条件下形成贝壳多层构造。     

STUDIES ON THE BIOCHEMISTRY AND FINE STRUCTURE OF SILICA SHELL FORMATION IN DIATOMS. II. THE STRUCTURE OF THE CELL WALL OF NAVICULA PELLICULOSA (BRÉB.) HILSE

The cell wall of the freshwater diatom Navicula pelliculosa (Bréb.) Hilse is composed of the silica shell and an organic skin which surrounds it. Isolated skins can be prepared by first removing the contents of the cell by mechanical shaking, followed by a posttreatment of these isolated cell walls with HF vapor to remove the silica shell. T h e skins can also be seen in sections, particularly well after the silica shell has been removed B y H. F; vapor. The origin and morphological composition of the shin in N. pelliculosa are not yet completely ascertaincd. As parts of the cell wn11, both the silica shell and the skin are extracellularly located. The growth of the silica shell, however, occurs intracellularly inside a vesicle delimited by a triple-layered membrane, the silicalemma. This membrane or secondary excreted organic material or both in various proportions may compose the skin.     

小麦的穗领在系统演化和个体发育中形成过程的初步探讨

小麦的穗领有三种类型:领腹完全敞开的U形穗领、领腹完全闭合的O形穗领和领腹呈V型交叉的V形穗领。穗领是系统演化中顶生叶叶鞘减化后的遗迹,也是个体发育中穗轴基部第一侧生小穗下苞叶原始体的痕迹。在一定条件下,从穗领可以长出叶鞘和叶片,穗轴基部节间可以变为茎节间,穗领腋内的小穗可以变为腋芽、带柄分枝穗或分枝花序。其余侧生小穗下都有一个领腹完全敞开的U形小穗领,其形态与U形穗领相似。它们是系统演化中二次轴分枝花序的苞叶叶鞘减化后的遗迹,也是个体发育中苞原始体的痕迹。一定条件下,从小穗领也可以长出叶鞘和叶片。穗轴基部节间变茎的同时,基部几个小穗若发生向圆锥花序的部分返祖变异,随着变异程度加深,从穗领和小穗领逐渐形成叶鞘和叶片。说明在系统演化中。顶生叶和苞叶先减化叶片,后减化叶鞘,最后形成穗领和小穗领。小麦祖先的花序与茎叶之间没有明显的界限。     

THE STRUCTURE OF THE FEATHERS IN CHLOROPHANES AND IRIDOPHANES (COEREBIDAE).

Structurally coloured feathers from the Coerebid Chlorophanes show atypical features. These may be connected with different conditions of compressibility during development, as compared with typical feathers and mammalian fibres; there, cortex is more compressible than medulla.
The atypical cortex has a special function in connection with the structural shade. The conditions in Iridophanes are similar to those in Chlorophanes , but less marked. Close relationship between these two genera, as suggested by earlier authors, is therefore confirmed.     

THE FORMATION, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MIXED-SPECIES INSECTIVOROUS BIRD FLOCKS IN WEST AFRICAN SAVANNA WOODLAND

Mixed-species flocks of birds were observed during the wet season (July to September 1975) in savanna woodland in Ghana. Thirty-four flocks contained birds of 56 species in 20 families, including insectivorous, granivorous, and nectarivorous species, using a wide range of foraging methods. Only two species occurred in more than half the flocks. There was no correlation between the number of flocks joined by a species and its abundance in the community. Among insectivores, but not granivores, the species which joined most flocks were those which habitually occurred in the largest single-species groups. All stages of breeding activity were represented by the various members. Some species joined flocks only while these were passing through their territories. Of the two species which were present most frequently, there were no differences between mixed and single-species flocks for Eremomela pusilla, but Parus leucomelas foraged and called on more occasions in mixed flocks than single-species flocks, though the rates of foraging and calling were related only to the number of P. leucomelas present. Groups of P. leucomelas appeared to initiate some flocks by attraction due to their conspicuous wing-bars, active movement, and loud calls. Black-and-white species joined them first, followed by birds of other plumage patterns. The advantages of mixed flocking are thought to be connected with finding patches of the food of bark- and foliage-searching insectivores, which were the only species regularly seen foraging in the flocks. Because of dry season burning which leaves small unburnt patches of savanna, these insect species may share a common, patchy distribution. Birds may also gain protection from predators, and some species probably gain no advantages. The species composition and behaviour of flocks previously recorded elsewhere in African savannas are similar to the Ghana flocks.     

FORMATION,STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CARTILAGE

Improved investigative techniques including electron microscopy, isotope tracings and improved histochemistry have greatly increased knowledge of the function of cartilage as a body tissue. Highly complex and delicate enzyme systems contained in the cartilage cell are involved in cartilage matrix formation and in the processes of calcification and cartilage repair. Heat, various drugs, freezing, and changes in the chemical environment damage or destroy these enzyme systems and interfere with the growth and function of cartilage. Hyaline cartilage to be transplanted must be handled with great care to preserve the cellular enzyme systems—otherwise the graft will be resorbed and clinical failure will result.     

STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SHOOT IN DOLICOTHELE

Boke , Norman H. (U. Oklahoma, Norman.) Structure and development of the shoot in Dolicothele. Amer. Jour. Bot. 48(4): 316–321. Illus. 1961.—A study of 2 species of Dolicothele reveals that although they have dimorphic areoles and a pattern of spine development similar to those of certain mammillarias, they share a significant number of ectomorphic and endomorphic characters with coryphanthas of the “vivipara group.” These include a tendency toward a cespitose habit; relatively large flowers; green fruits; pitted seeds; medullary vascular systems; forking of the main tubercle traces in the bases of the tubercles; lack of mucilage cells; thin-walled epidermis and hypodermis, both devoid of crystals; and large, druse-like crystalline aggregates in older parts of the pith and cortex. The evidence suggests that Coryphantha vivipara and closely allied species are the nearest extant relatives of Dolicothele. It would, therefore, seem inconsistent to return Dolicothele to Mammillaria unless an author's viewpoint were so conservative that he was willing also to return most, if not all, coryphanthas and escobarias to that genus.     

DYNAMICS OF POLYPLOID FORMATION IN TRAGOPOGON (ASTERACEAE): RECURRENT FORMATION,GENE FLOW,AND POPULATION STRUCTURE

Polyploidy is a major feature of angiosperm evolution and diversification. Most polyploid species have formed multiple times, yet we know little about the genetic consequences of recurrent formations. Among the clearest examples of recurrent polyploidy are Tragopogon mirus and T. miscellus (Asteraceae), each of which has formed repeatedly in the last ～80 years from known diploid progenitors in western North America. Here, we apply progenitor‐specific microsatellite markers to examine the genetic contributions to each tetraploid species and to assess gene flow among populations of independent formation. These data provide fine‐scale resolution of independent origins for both polyploid species. Importantly, multiple origins have resulted in considerable genetic variation within both polyploid species; however, the patterns of variation detected in the polyploids contrast with those observed in extant populations of the diploid progenitors. The genotypes detected in the two polyploid species appear to represent a snapshot of historical population structure in the diploid progenitors, rather than modern diploid genotypes. Our data also indicate a lack of gene flow among polyploid plants of independent origin, even when they co‐occur, suggesting potential reproductive barriers among separate lineages in both polyploid species.