Variation of wood strength in tree roots

In order to determine if the distribution of lateral root strengthis related to the shape of the system and the forces withstood,wood samples were taken from roots of various mature tree speciesand the strength tested. Root strength decreased along the root at different rates, dependingon the type of root system present. Slightly tapered lateralroots in plate root systems were relatively stronger furtheraway from the stem than the highly tapered laterals in heartand tap root systems. Wood strength in Norway spruce (platesystem) was found to increase along the lateral roots beforedecreasing again. The increase in strength may coincide withthe point of maximum bending of the root as the tree sways backwardsand forwards in the wind. Strength was also found to increaseon the underside of lateral roots in the plate systems of poplar.The undersides of these roots will experience high compressivestresses due to the weight of the tree pushing the root on tothe hard bearing surface of the soil. External loading forces in plate root systems will be transmittedinto the soil further away from the stem due to the lack ofbranches, therefore a high strength along the root will helpresist mechanical stress. The high rate of branching near thestem, or large, rigid, main tap root, found in heart and taproot systems, respectively, allows a faster dissipation of forcesnearer the stem, therefore a high investment in strength furtheralong the root is not necessary. Key words: Anchorage, stability, wind, stress, forces     

Age-dependent influence of strain rate on the tensile failure of rat-tail tendon

Sensitivity of tensile strength, failure strain, and failure energy density to strain rate was studied for rat-tail tendon (RTT), a collagen-rich connective tissue. Tendons from animals aged 1-27 months were stretched at a high (720 percent/s) and low (3.6 percent/s) strain rate. Each failure parameter increased with strain rate. However, the sensitivity of tendon failure to rate of strain decreased rapidly during growth and sexual maturation of the animal. The study provides basic data on the rate-sensitive strength of collagen fibers using RTT.     

Effect of fiber orientation and strain rate on the nonlinear uniaxial tensile material properties of tendon

Tendons are exposed to complex loading scenarios that can only be quantified by mathematical models, requiring a full knowledge of tendon mechanical properties. This study measured the anisotropic, nonlinear, elastic material properties of tendon. Previous studies have primarily used constant strain-rate tensile tests to determine elastic modulus in the fiber direction. Data for Poisson's ratio aligned with the fiber direction and all material properties transverse to the fiber direction are sparse. Additionally, it is not known whether quasi-static constant strain-rate tests represent equilibrium elastic tissue behavior. Incremental stress-relaxation and constant strain-rate tensile tests were performed on sheep flexor tendon samples aligned with the tendon fiber direction or transverse to the fiber direction to determine the anisotropic properties of toe-region modulus (E0), linear-region modulus (E), and Poisson's ratio (v). Among the modulus values calculated, only fiber-aligned linear-region modulus (E1) was found to be strain-rate dependent. The E1 calculated from the constant strain-rate tests were significantly greater than the value calculated from incremental stress-relaxation testing. Fiber-aligned toe-region modulus (E(1)0 = 10.5 +/- 4.7 MPa) and linear-region modulus (E1 = 34.0 +/- 15.5 MPa) were consistently 2 orders of magnitude greater than transverse moduli (E(2)0 = 0.055 +/- 0.044 MPa, E2 = 0.157 +/- 0.154 MPa). Poisson's ratio values were not found to be rate-dependent in either the fiber-aligned (v12 = 2.98 +/- 2.59, n = 24) or transverse (v21 = 0.488 +/- 0.653, n = 22) directions, and average Poisson's ratio values in the fiber-aligned direction were six times greater than in the transverse direction. The lack of strain-rate dependence of transverse properties demonstrates that slow constant strain-rate tests represent elastic properties in the transverse direction. However, the strain-rate dependence demonstrated by the fiber-aligned linear-region modulus suggests that incremental stress-relaxation tests are necessary to determine the equilibrium elastic properties of tendon, and may be more appropriate for determining the properties to be used in elastic mathematical models.     

Effects of pulse length and pulse strength on transfection by electroporation

The relative importance of pulse field strength E and pulse length tau 1/2 (half decay time of an exponential decay pulse) on the stable transfection frequency for HeLa or HUT-78 cells was investigated. Cells were transfected with plasmids containing the promoter and drug resistant genes pRSVgpt or pRSVneo by electroporation. The stable transfection frequency was assayed using the marker rescue technique. The transfection frequency increases with increasing values of E tau 1/2. For a given pulse length, the transfection frequency is proportional to the power of the pulse (E2 tau 1/2). Pulses with half decay times of 2.2 to 4.6 ms appear to be more efficient than 0.275 to 0.31 ms for stable transfection of HeLa cells.     

Developmental exposure to xenoestrogens at low doses alters femur length and tensile strength in adult mice

Developmental exposure to high doses of the synthetic xenoestrogen diethylstilbestrol (DES) has been reported to alter femur length and strength in adult mice. However, it is not known if developmental exposure to low, environmentally relevant doses of xenoestrogens alters adult bone geometry and strength. In this study we investigated the effects of developmental exposure to low doses of DES, bisphenol A (BPA), or ethinyl estradiol (EE(2)) on bone geometry and torsional strength. C57BL/6 mice were exposed to DES, 0.1 μg/kg/day, BPA, 10 μg/kg/day, EE(2), 0.01, 0.1, or 1.0 μg/kg/day, or vehicle from Gestation Day 11 to Postnatal Day 12 via a mini-osmotic pump in the dam. Developmental Xenoestrogen exposure altered femoral geometry and strength, assessed in adulthood by micro-computed tomography and torsional strength analysis, respectively. Low-dose EE(2), DES, or BPA increased adult femur length. Exposure to the highest dose of EE(2) did not alter femur length, resulting in a nonmonotonic dose response. Exposure to EE(2) and DES but not BPA decreased tensile strength. The combined effect of increased femur length and decreased tensile strength resulted in a trend toward decreased torsional ultimate strength and energy to failure. Taken together, these results suggest that exposure to developmental exposure to environmentally relevant levels of xenoestrogens may negatively impact bone length and strength in adulthood.     

Compressive strength of mandibular bone as a function of microstructure and strain rate

An investigation has been made of the compressive strength of the porcine mandible and its depedence upon microstructure and strain rate. The results are compared with the fracture behavior of bovine femoral bone. Regarding microstructural dependence, it was found that fracture behavior depends upon regularity of structure, morphology of subunits, orientation of lamellae with respect to the stress axis, amount of ground substance, density and mineral content. Fracture mode was found to be a strong function of strain rate. For both porcine mandibular and bovine femoral bone, there is a ductile-to-brittle transition which results in a change of strain rate sensitivity coefficient from 0.1 to 0.0 at the transition region. This is corroborated by a large change in work-to-fracture values at this region. Therefore, the existence of a critical velocity for bone is supported by the present data.     

Damage rate is a predictor of fatigue life and creep strain rate in tensile fatigue of human cortical bone samples

We present results on the growth of damage in 29 fatigue tests of human femoral cortical bone from four individuals, aged 53-79. In these tests we examine the interdependency of stress, cycles to failure, rate of creep strain, and rate of modulus loss. The behavior of creep rates has been reported recently for the same donors as an effect of stress and cycles. In the present paper we first examine how the evolution of damage (drop in modulus per cycle) is associated with the stress level or the "normalized stress" level (stress divided by specimen modulus), and results show the rate of modulus loss fits better as a function of normalized stress. However, we find here that even better correlations can be established between either the cycles to failure or creep rates versus rates of damage than any of these three measures versus normalized stress. The data indicate that damage rates can be excellent predictors of fatigue life and creep strain rates in tensile fatigue of human cortical bone for use in practical problems and computer simulations.     

Microcracking damage and the fracture process in relation to strain rate in human cortical bone tensile failure

It is difficult to define the 'physiological' mechanical properties of bone. Traumatic failures in-vivo are more likely to be orders of magnitude faster than the quasistatic tests usually employed in-vitro. We have reported recently [Hansen, U., Zioupos, P., Simpson, R., Currey, J.D., Hynd, D., 2008. The effect of strain rate on the mechanical properties of human cortical bone. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering/Transactions of the ASME 130, 011011-1-8] results from tests on specimens of human femoral cortical bone loaded in tension at strain rates (epsilon ) ranging from low (0.08s(-1)) to high (18s(-1)). Across this strain rate range the modulus of elasticity generally increased, stress at yield and failure and strain at failure decreased for rates higher than 1s(-1), while strain at yield was invariant for most strain rates and only decreased at rates higher than 10s(-1). The results showed that strain rate has a stronger effect on post-yield deformation than on initiation of macroscopic yielding. In general, specimens loaded at high strain rates were brittle, while those loaded at low strain rates were much tougher. Here, a post-test examination of the microcracking damage reveals that microcracking was inversely related to the strain rate. Specimens loaded at low strain rates showed considerable post-yield strain and also much more microcracking. Partial correlation and regression analysis suggested that the development of post-yield strain was a function of the amount of microcracking incurred (the cause), rather than being a direct result of the strain rate (the excitation). Presumably low strain rates allow time for microcracking to develop, which increases the compliance of the specimen, making them tougher. This behaviour confirms a more general rule that the degree to which bone is brittle or tough depends on the amount of microcracking damage it is able to sustain. More importantly, the key to bone toughness is its ability to avoid a ductile-to-brittle transition for as long as possible during the deformation. The key to bone's brittleness, on the other hand, is the strain and damage localisation early on in the process, which leads to low post-yield strains and low-energy absorption to failure.     

Lifeness signatures and the roots of the tree of life

Do trees of life have roots? What do these roots look like? In this contribution, I argue that research on the origins of life might offer glimpses on the topology of these very roots. More specifically, I argue (1) that the roots of the tree of life go well below the level of the commonly mentioned ‘ancestral organisms’ down into the level of much simpler, minimally living entities that might be referred to as ‘protoliving systems’, and (2) that further below, a system of roots gradually dissolves into non-living matter along several functional dimensions. In between non-living and living matter, one finds physico-chemical systems that I propose to characterize by a ‘lifeness signature’. In turn, this ‘lifeness signature’ might also account for a diverse range of biochemical entities that are found to be ‘less-than-living’ yet ‘more-than-non-living’.     

Effects of different disinfection and sterilization methods on tensile strength of materials used for single-use devices

Driven by economic and time constraints, some medical centers and third parties are resterilizing single-use devices (SUDs) for reuse. The steam autoclave is quick, but most plastics used in SUDs cannot survive the temperature. Thus, a number of new methods of cleaning, disinfecting, and sterilizing these complex devices are being introduced on the market. The present study investigated the effects of a range of methods on the tensile strength of latex rubber, silicone elastomer, 2 different formulations of polyurethane, nylon, and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) specimens. The methods used were sodium hypochlorite bleach (Clorox), peracetic acid + hydrogen peroxide (Steris), formaldehyde gas (Chemiclave), low-temperature peracetic acid and gas plasma (Plazlyte), and low-temperature hydrogen peroxide gas plasma (Sterrad). The results showed that silicone elastomer was minimally affected, whereas the strengths of nylon, polyethylene, and latex were reduced by some of the methods. Depending on the formulation, the strength of polyurethane either increased or decreased. The data demonstrated that disinfection and sterilization can affect the tensile strength of certain materials used in medical devices.     

树木根系衰老研究的意义与现状

树木根系是树木重要的组成部分,具有养分和水分的吸收、传输和储存、树体的固定与支撑等重要的生理功能．在树木根系形成以后,常常遭遇到养分和水分胁迫,因此,其养分和水分的吸收功能尤其重要,在森林土壤中,养分和水分具有很大的时间和空间异质性,随着养分和水分在时间和空间上的变化,树木及时地主动调整其碳在根系中的分配,从而导致部分根系衰老或死亡,在林学上,树木根系衰老与养分和水分吸收关系密切,因而与树木生产力有直接的关系．在生态系统乃至全球尺度上,树木根系衰老影响碳循环和养分循环,因为根系对碳的消耗占树木通过光合作用所固定的碳的比例相当大,且含有丰富的养分．树木根系衰老受许多环境因子的影响,生物因子有真菌、细菌、病毒、土壤小型动物等,非生物因子有水分、温度、土壤养分、重金属等,这些因子对树木根系衰老的影响机制并不相同,尽管在树木根系衰老研究领域取得了长足的进步,提出了许多不同的假设,但仍有许多问题尚未解决,这些假设也需要更多的实验来验证,运用细胞学、生物化学、土壤科学、遗传学等多学科的交叉研究可进一步揭示根系衰老的本质。     

The toxicity of peach tree roots

Summary The HCN content of peach plants and the effect of this and other substances formed from peach root residues on growth of peach trees and on soil microorganisms were investigated. Peach root bark contained appreciable amounts of HCN. HCN was released from live roots after mechanical injury. Benzaldehyde and KCN were toxic to rooted peach trees in the greenhouse and they inhibited respiration of peach root tips. A similar suppression of respiration was caused by benzoic acid, mandelonitrile, and water extracts of peach root bark incubated in peach and non-peach soils. Extracts from peach soil caused greater inhibition to respiration of peach root tips than extracts from non-peach soil.KCN, mandelonitrile, benzaldehyde, peach root bark, and amygdalin reduced the total micro-organism, actinomycete, pythium, and pathogenic nematode population of an old peach soil.     

株龄和插穗直径对甘蒙柽柳插穗成活率的影响

甘蒙柽柳(Tamarix austromongolica Nakai)为柽柳科(Tamaricaceae)柽柳属(Tamarix L.)灌木或乔木[1]。2010年7月,中国科学院西北高原生物研究所科研人员在海拔2 700 m的青海省同德县境内发现1片野生甘蒙柽柳古乔木居群,其中最大的1株胸径达327 cm,株高为1 130 cm,树龄初步估测为400～500 a。这片甘蒙柽柳古林资源对于研究气候变化和柽柳属植物的演化过程具有重要的科学意义。现今,这片珍贵稀有的甘蒙柽柳古林正面临因水电站建设而被淹没的危     

Effects of low water potential on cortical cell length in growing regions of maize roots

Roots growing under low water potential commonly exhibit a marked decrease in growth rate and in diameter. Using median longitudinal sections of fixed maize (Zea mays L. cv WF9 × Mo 17) seedling roots, we investigated the cellular basis for these effects. Cortical cells in the shortened elongation zone of water stressed roots were longer than cortical cells in the comparable location of well-watered roots. Nearly twofold differences in cell length were seen in the region 2 to 4 millimeters behind the root apex. The shortened growth zone, however, leads to a final mean cortical cell length approximately 30% shorter in the stressed roots. These differences were present regardless of the age of the control roots. These data, and the slower growth rate seen in water-stressed roots, suggest that the water deficit causes a significant reduction in the rate of cell supply to the cortical cell files.     

杨树细根及草根的生产力与周转的研究

对北方杨树人工林0－40cm土层中杨树细根和草根（≤2mm）年生物量、分解量、死亡量、生长量和周转率进行观察研究。结果表明,杨树细根的年生物量为2．062t.hm^-2,死根生物量为0．746t.hm^-2,分解量为0．158t.hm^2,生长量为2．351t.hm^－2,周转率为每年1．14次,活草根的年生物量、死根生物量、分解量、生长量和周转率分别0．501、0．035、0．023、0．691t.hm^-2和1．38,同时给出了杨树细根干重损失随分解时间变化的方程：1nx/x0=0.9515e^-0.0014t。     

Influences of plant spacing on root tensile strength of Schefflera arboricola and soil shear strength

Mechanical root reinforcement depends not only on root biomechanical properties but also on root biomass. Although it is known that plant spacing can affect root growth, it is not clear how it affects root tensile strength. We interpreted a set of field data to study the effects of spacing of Schefflera arboricola on root area ratio (RAR), root tensile strength and their combined effects on soil shear strength (also termed root cohesion). S. arboricola was transplanted into compacted silty sand at a spacing of 0.5 m, 0.8 m and 1.1 m. After 20 months of growth in the field, the root systems were excavated for root tensile testing and post-test trait measurements. Plant spacing affected the growth and tensile strength of roots. More closely spaced plants had higher RAR but lower root tensile strength, especially for roots 0.5–2 mm in diameter. According to the existing root breakage and fibre bundle models used in this study, which calculate root cohesion as the product of RAR and root tensile strength, the effects of plant spacing on root cohesion were minimal for most soil depths apart from 0.4- to 0.5-m depth.

     

Measurements of the fragmentation rate constant imply that the tensile strength of fungal hyphae can change significantly during growth

Because little is known about filamentous fungal tensile strength, it is assumed to be constant in many models. A method involving off-line fragmentation and image analysis is used now to measure relative tensile strength of Aspergillus oryzae hyphae. During the course of shake-flask and fed-batch cultures, hyphal tensile strength increases during growth then decreases. Hyphal tensile strength can change up to 3-fold over time.     

施氮量和土壤灭菌对根结线虫侵染番茄根系的影响

设施蔬菜生产中,根结线虫病害频繁发生,严重威胁了设施蔬菜生产的安全性和可持续性.为了探究氮肥施用量和土壤灭菌对根结线虫侵染番茄根系的影响,采用二因素(施氮量和土壤是否灭菌)二水平完全随机区组设计,进行盆栽试验.施氮量分别为100和300 mg·kg-1,采用γ射线对土壤灭菌或不灭菌.结果表明:未灭菌条件下,与高氮处理相比,低氮处理单位根长和单位根干重的根结数分别减少了42.5%和30.4%,地上部干重和根干重分别增加了43.9%和31.4%,氮素农学利用效率提高4.3倍;对土壤进行γ射线灭菌,有效地消除了根结线虫对番茄根系的侵染,地上部干重增加了31.8%;适当减少氮肥施用量能显著降低根结线虫对设施番茄根系的侵染,促进番茄生长,提高氮素农学利用效率.