宁夏罗山自然保护区3种典型林分凋落物和土壤层水源涵养能力综合评估

森林凋落物层和土壤层是森林生态水文效应中的主要贡献层，对森林生态系统水土保持功能和水源涵养能力有重要影响。对比宁夏罗山自然保护区3种典型林分类型凋落物和土壤层水文效应的变化规律和水源涵养能力大小，为该地区的森林生态水文、水土保持和森林管理提供科学依据。以该自然保护区青海云杉纯林、油松纯林和青海云杉油松混交林为研究对象，运用称量、室内浸泡、环刀法和回归分析法对凋落物和土壤层的水文效应进行测定和拟合，并使用熵权法对二者的水源涵养能力进行评估。结果表明：（1）青海云杉油松混交林凋落物的总厚度和总储量显著高于青海云杉纯林和油松纯林（P<0.05），3种林分类型的半分解层的厚度和储量高于未分解层。（2）凋落物层最大持水量范围为63.29-95.08t/hm²，最大持水率范围为335.97%-353.85%，有效拦蓄量范围为34.09-63.92t/hm²，三者均为青海云杉油松混交林>云杉纯林>油松纯林。（3）3种林分类型的凋落物持水量（Q）与浸泡时间（t）呈对数函数关系，吸水速率（V）与浸泡时间（t）呈幂函数关系。（4）从3种林分类型的土壤物理性质和持水特性得出，3种林分类型的土壤层水文效应的等级排序为云杉油松混交林>油松纯林>青海云杉纯林。（5）凋落物层和土壤层的水源涵养能力大小为青海云杉油松混交林（0.43）>油松林（0.3）>青海云杉林（0.27）。综合来看，青海云杉油松混交林的凋落物层和土壤层的水源涵养能力最优，其次是纯林，说明混交林在水土保持和水源涵养方面比纯林更具优势。     

甘肃亚高山云杉人工林生态系统碳、氮储量动态和分配格局

云杉是甘肃亚高山地区重要的造林树种,研究其生态系统碳、氮储量的动态变化和分配格局有利于评价云杉人工造林后的生态恢复效果。以甘南、定西地区不同林龄(包括幼龄林、中龄林、近熟林和成熟林)的云杉人工林为研究对象,共设置16块调查样地。在野外调查、样品采集和分析的基础上,估算了其生态系统的碳、氮储量。结果显示:云杉林乔木不同器官的碳含量相对稳定,氮含量则与器官类型有密切关系;同一土层不同龄级的土壤碳、氮含量无明显差异。从乔木层、灌木层、枯落物层到草本层碳氮含量比值依次减小,土壤层碳氮含量比值最低。该地区云杉人工林生态系统总碳、氮储量分别为257. 75—430.23 t/hm~2和20.50—29.88 t/hm~2。随着林龄的增加,植被层碳、氮储量增加显著,分别从15.5 t/hm~2和0.24 t/hm~2增加到143.51 t/hm~2和1.65 t/hm~2。土壤层(0—100 cm)碳、氮储量分别为242.23—367.79 t/hm~2和20.26—29.58 t/hm~2,在整个生态系统各龄级中所占比例均超过60%和90%。生态系统和土壤层(0—100 cm)碳、氮储量在不同龄级间无显著差异。生态系统中土壤层、乔木层及灌、草、枯落物层的碳储量比例分别为85.72%、13.44%和0.84%,氮储量比例分别为97.60%、2.08%和0.32%。     

中国西部3个亚高山森林土壤有机层和矿质层碳储量和生化特性

为了解土壤和植被界面的有机碳库和生化特性,分别将以云杉（Picea purpurea Masters）（SF）、冷杉（Abiesfaxoniana Rehder＆ E．H．Wilson）（FF）和白桦（Betulaplatyphylla Sukaczev）（BF）为优势树种的3个亚高山森林地表有机层（OL）分成新鲜凋落物层（LL）、半分解层（FL）和分解层（HL）,并同步测定了有机层和矿质土壤层（MS）的有机碳（OC）储量、微生物生物量碳（Cmic）、微生物生物量氮（N～）及转化酶、过氧化氢酶、脱氢酶和多酚氧化酶活性。云杉林、冷杉林和白桦林土壤有机层的有机碳储量分别为29．38Mghm^-2±1．28Mghm^-2、22．7Mghm^-2±1．12Mghm^-2和8．63Mghm^-2±0．95Mghm^-2,分别为总有机碳储量的62．2％、53．5％和36．6％。云杉林、冷杉林和白桦林土壤有机层和腐殖质层分别储存了92．8％、99．6％和78．7％的有机碳。所有林型中,HL具有最高的细菌数量、Cmic和Nmic及过氧化氢酶活性,FL具有最高的真菌、放线菌数量及转化酶、脱氢酶和多酚氧化酶活性。微生物数量、微生物生物量和酶活性的垂直分布格局意味着OL是土壤和植被之间最活跃的生态界面之一。     

亚高山针叶林土壤有机层有效氮动态及其对外源C、N增加的响应

为了解川西亚高山针叶林土壤有机层有效N的动态及其对外源C、N增加的响应,2005年4～10月采用人为施加C、N的控制实验方法,研究了川西亚高山紫果云杉(Picea purpurea Masters)林和岷江冷杉(Abies faxoniana Rehder & E. H. Wilson)林下土壤有机层(OL)的半分解层(FL)和完全分解层(HL)及矿质土壤层(MS)有效氮(NH+4-N + NO-3-N)动态及其对外源C、N的响应.云杉和冷杉林FL和HL的有效氮含量均显著高于MS.云杉林FL、HL和MS的NH+4-N分别为总有效氮含量的77.4%、72.4%和76.6%,而冷杉林分别为65.2%、57.6%和67.2%.有效氮和NH+4-N含量均以10月份最高,而NO-3-N含量以8月份最高.外源C输入使云杉林土壤FL、HL和MS有效氮含量提高了14.6%、21.2%和28.0%,使冷杉林提高了16.7%、25.3%和5 2%.外源N输入使云杉林土壤FL、HL和MS有效氮含量提高了53.9%、11.6%和13.2%,冷杉林提高了14.2%、23.8%和50.5%.OL对外源C、N输入的响应比MS更敏感,且云杉林大于冷杉林.处理时间越长,外源C、N输入对OL和MS有效氮含量的影响越大.     

青藏高原东缘亚高山针叶林人工恢复过程中的土壤呼吸特征

采用动态密闭气室红外CO₂分析法,对青藏高原东缘云杉人工林的土壤呼吸进行连续定位测定,并用挖壕沟法区分土壤自养呼吸和异养呼吸.结果表明:4种云杉林的土壤呼吸速率与土壤5 cm层温度有显著的正指数关系,与土壤含水量的相关性不显著.4种云杉林土壤呼吸年通量在792.08～1070.20 g C·m^-2·a^-1,大小依次为：天然云杉林＞22年生云杉人工林＞65年生云杉人工林＞35年生云杉人工林,随着人工林的恢复呈先降低后升高的趋势.在森林恢复过程中,人工云杉土壤自养和异养呼吸年通量均先减少后增加, 在253.36～357.05 g C·m^-2·a^-1和538.69～703.82 g C·m^-2·a^-1范围变化.22年生、35年生、65年生云杉人工林和天然云杉林非生长季 （2007-11-2008-03）和生长季（2008-04-2008-10）的Q₁₀值分别为：4.59、6.54、4.77、3.18和4.17、4.66、3.11、2.74.除22年生云杉人工林,Q₁₀值随云杉林的恢复更新而逐渐降低, 且非生长季节Q₁₀值均明显高于生长季节.     

秦岭西部山地次生林和人工林大型土壤动物群落结构特征

人类对次生林生态系统的长期扰动必然会对地下生态过程产生深刻影响,而土壤动物群落结构和功能多样性对地下生态过程的演变有重要的指示意义.本文以小陇山林区恢复近30年的次生林和栽植近30年的油松、日本落叶松、欧洲云杉和粗枝云杉林为对象,通过对5种林型土壤动物群落密度调查,采用PCA排序和方差分析等方法,探讨了不同林型土壤动物群落结构特征和营养结构.结果表明:油松林和日本落叶松林土壤动物群落密度是次生林的3.0和2.1倍;油松和日本落叶松人工林土壤动物群落中消费者/分解者比值明显高于次生林,油松林和日本落叶松林消费者/分解者的比值显著高于欧洲云杉林和粗枝云杉林;不同人工林土壤动物群落结构存在明显差异,油松林和日本落叶松林土壤动物群落密度是粗枝云杉林的4.5和3.1倍,而油松林土壤动物群落类群丰富度是欧洲云杉林和粗枝云杉林的1.5倍.     

海拔梯度对祁连山青海云杉林乔木层和土壤层碳密度的影响

以祁连山西水林区青海云杉典型林分为研究对象,按照青海云杉分布界限海拔2500—3300 m,采用梯度格局法,研究祁连山青海云杉林乔木层和土壤层碳密度沿海拔梯度的空间分布特征,以期为准确估算祁连山青海云杉林碳储量变化影响因素提供科学依据。结果表明:(1)青海云杉林生物量平均值为115.83 t/hm~2,碳密度平均值为60.23 t/hm~2。生物量整体随海拔梯度增加表现为先增加后波动降低的趋势,在海拔2800 m处达到最高值(197.10 t/hm~2),海拔3300 m处达到最低值(7.66t/hm~2),且不同海拔梯度间差异显著。林分各器官生物量分配格局在各海拔处均表现为干根枝叶。(2)土壤有机碳含量平均值为54.80 g/kg,变化范围为31.49—76.96 g/kg。随着土壤层次的增加,除海拔3200 m和3300 m的土壤有机碳含量未表现出规律变化外,其他海拔梯度则均呈现出逐渐降低趋势。土壤有机碳密度在海拔2900 m最高,为245.40 t/hm~2,在海拔2700 m处最低,为130.24 t/hm~2;海拔2500—2700 m表现为平缓降低趋势,在2800 m处急剧上升,且海拔2800—3200 m呈现无显著性轻度波动变化,在海拔3300 m又急剧降低。(3)青海云杉林生态系统平均总碳密度为255.15 t/hm~2,乔木层和土壤层占总碳密度的比例分别为23.61%和76.39%,且不同海拔梯度间存在极显著差异。土壤有机碳密度与海拔、年均降水量、土壤有机碳含量、土壤全氮呈显著正相关,与年夏季平均气温呈显著负相关;乔木层碳密度与年夏季气温、林分密度、胸高断面积呈显著正相关,与海拔和土壤全氮呈显著负相关。(4)祁连山青海云杉林乔木层和土壤层碳密度均随海拔梯度变化受水热条件组合的改变而呈现规律变化,以中部海拔区段2800—3200 m碳密度较高。     

长白山落叶松林下笃斯越桔群落土壤的主要矿质养分构成特征

以长白山落叶松(Larix olgensis)林下笃斯越桔(Vaccinium uliginosum)群落为对象,调查了构成群落土壤各层次的主要矿质养分N、P、K、Ca、Mg、S含量及其构成特征.结果表明:长白山区落叶松林下笃斯越桔群落的根系主要生长在由苔藓、落叶松和笃斯越桔凋落物等积累形成的上层基质内,而在由火山灰构成的下层矿质土壤层内几乎没有根系生长.主要构成成分苔藓(泥炭藓Sphagnum spp.和金发藓Plytrichum spp.)的全N、全P和全K含量均明显大于落叶松针叶,全Ca含量略小于落叶松针叶,全Mg和全S含量与落叶松针叶相近,说明苔藓枯死体是群落N、P、K养分的重要来源之一;笃斯越桔枯落叶在凋落物内的构成比例虽较少,但N、P、Ca、S含量均较高,也是群落养分的重要来源之一.按照土壤层次,从上至下依次划分为活苔藓层L、死苔藓层F、半分解层A1、泥炭层A2和火山灰层C.全N含量呈F＞L＞A1＞A2＞C的趋势,除F层略高一点外,基本上呈自上而下递减的趋势;全P含量为L≈F≈A1＞A2＞C;全K含量为L≈F＜A1＜A2＜C;全S含量为L≈F≈A1＞A2＞C;全Ca含量为L≈F＞A1;全Mg含量为L＜F＜A1.在具有矿质土壤的A2层和C层,除有效S以外,C层的N、P、K、Ca、Mg等可利用矿质营养均明显低于A2层,加之C层pH值较高,限制了笃斯越桔根系的生长.     

秦岭西部山地针叶林凋落物持水特性

采用野外实地观测与室内浸提法,对秦岭西部地区4种主要针叶林（华北落叶松、日本落叶松、粗枝云杉和欧洲云杉）林地凋落物的储量、持水量、持水率和吸水速率进行了研究.结果表明：林龄相近的4种针叶林林下凋落物储量大小依次为粗枝云杉（29.81 t·hm^-2）>欧洲云杉（26.17 t·hm^-2）>日本落叶松（13.30 t·hm^-2）>华北落叶松（8.46 t·hm^-2）;不同林型不同分解程度凋落物的持水量和持水率与浸泡时间皆呈对数关系,其吸水速率与浸泡时间呈幂函数关系,而各种持水特性与森林类型和凋落物的分解程度无关;研究区4种针叶林半分解层凋落物的持水能力均强于分解层,而落叶松林的持水能力较云杉林强.     

川西亚高山云杉人工林恢复过程中表层土壤碳动态变化

对川西亚高山云杉原始林及其皆伐迹地上云杉人工林不同演替阶段（22、47和65年）表层（0～30 cm）土壤碳储量及活性有机碳含量进行了分析.结果表明：在0～10、10～20和20～30 cm土层中,土壤总有机碳（TOC）储量分别由22年生云杉人工林的9587、7908和71.55 t·hm^-2减少到65年生云杉人工林的56.12、34.75和31.06 t·hm^-2,且47和65年生云杉人工林各层土壤TOC储量小于原始林（88.08、71.16和64.81 t·hm^-2）;各层土壤易氧化有机碳（EOC）含量分别由原始林的3589、26.91和26.00 g·kg^-1 减少到65年生云杉人工林的20.25、14.50和12.36 g·kg^-1,土壤微生物生物量碳（MBC）含量由原始林的524.44、273.26和257.97 mg·kg^-1减少到65年生云杉人工林的 312.41、186.95和152.18 mg·kg^-1,颗粒态有机碳（POC）含量由原始林的40.23、27.10和19.55 g·kg^-1减少到65年生云杉人工林的12.33、7.31和5.32 g·kg^-1.川西亚高山云杉原始林在转变为人工林后相当长的时间内,土壤有机碳及活性碳一直处于净消耗状态.     

Race and Racism in America and in Anthropology

Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview . Audrey Smedley
Anthropology and Race . Eugenia Shanklin     

Degradation and conversion of somatostatin in normal and diabetic rats in vivo and in vitro

Plasma somatostatin-like immunoreactivity in the portal and jugular veins of streptozotocin diabetic rats was compared with that in normal control rats. In the diabetic group, somatostatin levels in the portal (p less than 0.05) and jugular (p less than 0.01) veins were both elevated compared with those in the control group. Moreover, the degree of elevation was greater in the jugular vein than in the portal vein. To further investigate the role of the liver in the clearance of somatostatin-28 in vivo, 2 micrograms of somatostatin-28 was administered as a bolus into the external jugular vein of intact and functionally hepatectomized rats. The mean half-time of somatostatin-28 was significantly longer in intact diabetic rats than in controls (p less than 0.05). The functional hepatectomy did not cause a significant difference in the half-time in diabetic rats but made it longer in control rats. These results suggest that the longer half-time of somatostatin-28 in diabetic rats in vivo is due to its slower hepatic clearance. The hepatic clearance of somatostatin-28 and somatostatin-14 was further studied in vitro using a recirculating liver perfusion method. The hepatic clearance of 1.2 nM of either somatostatin-28 or somatostatin-14 was significantly lower in diabetic rats than in controls (p less than 0.01). This indicates that elevated plasma somatostatin levels in diabetic rats are caused at least in part by decreased hepatic clearance of somatostatin.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Variation in infectivity and aggressiveness in space and time in wild host-pathogen systems: causes and consequences

Variation in host resistance and in the ability of pathogens to infect and grow (i.e. pathogenicity) is important as it provides the raw material for antagonistic (co)evolution and therefore underlies risks of disease spread, disease evolution and host shifts. Moreover, the distribution of this variation in space and time may inform us about the mode of coevolutionary selection (arms race vs. fluctuating selection dynamics) and the relative roles of G × G interactions, gene flow, selection and genetic drift in shaping coevolutionary processes. Although variation in host resistance has recently been reviewed, little is known about overall patterns in the frequency and scale of variation in pathogenicity, particularly in natural systems. Using 48 studies from 30 distinct host–pathogen systems, this review demonstrates that variation in pathogenicity is ubiquitous across multiple spatial and temporal scales. Quantitative analysis of a subset of extensively studied plant–pathogen systems shows that the magnitude of within‐population variation in pathogenicity is large relative to among‐population variation and that the distribution of pathogenicity partly mirrors the distribution of host resistance. At least part of the variation in pathogenicity found at a given spatial scale is adaptive, as evidenced by studies that have examined local adaptation at scales ranging from single hosts through metapopulations to entire continents and – to a lesser extent – by comparisons of pathogenicity with neutral genetic variation. Together, these results support coevolutionary selection through fluctuating selection dynamics. We end by outlining several promising directions for future research.     

Electroejaculation in chimpanzees and gorillas and artificial insemination in chimpanzees

Electroejaculation was performed in 3 chimpanzees, 1 pygmy chimpanzee, and 2 gorillas with an instrument that delivers a modified sine wave current with a frequency of 24 Hz. The current stimuli were applied by a rectal probe with longitudinal electrodes. The electrical parameters varied from 6 to 12 V and from 30 to 40 mA for response of erection and lay between 8 and 18 V and between 40 and 145 mA during semen emission. Eleven chimpanzee semen samples showed the following data (x ± SD): total volume 1.9 ± 1.3 ml, volume of the liquid fraction 0.3 ± 0.2 ml, spermatozoa per ejaculate 743 ± 376 × 10⁶, sperm motility 52.7 ± 9.6%, morphologically abnormal spermatozoa 12.2 ± 7.5%. From an adult gorilla, three semen samples were collected, in each case without spermatozoa. The electrostimulation of a 6-year-old gorilla led to an erection, but not to semen emission. Three female chimpanzees were inseminated with fresh or frozen semen, each of them within three different estrous cycles. None of these inseminations led to a pregnancy.     

Aminoacylation in Sulfolobus acidocaldarius and in methanogenic and halophilic archaebacteria

Abstract Phenylalanyl-tRNA synthetase (PRS) from the sulphur-metabolizing thermoacidophilic archaebacterium Sulfolobus acidocaldarius has been purified 150-fold using different chromatographic steps. The enzyme has a M _r of 270 000 and exhibits considerable thermostability in a temperature range up to 90°C with optimal activity at 70°C. Conservation of antigenic determinants could not be detected by antibodies against various PRS of all primary kingdoms. As a further means to detect traits of phylogenetic relationship, the cross-species reactivity between PRS and tRNAs of organisms from the three branches of archaebacteria and from all primary kingdoms reveals the group character of all 3 branches of the archaebacterial domain, the sulphur-metabolizing, methanogenic and halophilic archaebacteria.     

Advances in purine and pyrimidine metabolism in health and diseases

ABSTRACT

In June, 2015, the Purine and Pyrimidine Society organized the 16th biennial symposium on Purine and Pyrimidine metabolism at the Faculty House of Columbia University, New York City. This exciting meeting focused on these important molecules, new developments in inborn errors of metabolism; therapeutic analogs. In addition, the biochemistry of mammalian and non-mammalian systems were discussed. Due to significant advances in molecular medicine, the boundaries between clinical and basic sciences have merged into exciting translational research, of which a small portion was highlighted in the presymposium.     

MPD and DNA Bending in Crystals and in Solution

Bending of 15 to 24° is observed within crystal structures ofB-DNA duplexes, is strongly sequence-dependent, and exhibits no correlation with the concentration of MPD (2-methyl-2,4-pentanediol) in the crystallizing solution. Two types of bends are observed: facultative bends or flexible hinges at junctions between regions of G·C and A·T base-pairs, and a persistent and almost obligatory bend at the center of the sequence R-G-C-Y. Only A-tracts are characteristically straight and unbent in every crystal structure examined to date. A detailed examination of normal vector plots for individual strands of a double helix provides an explanation, in terms of the stacking properties of guanine and adenine bases. The effect of high MPD concentrations, in both solution and crystal, is to decrease local bending somewhat without removing it altogether. MPD gel retardation experiments provide no basis for choosing among the three models that seek to explain macroscopic curvature of DNA by means of microscopic bending: junction bending, bent A-tracts, or bent general- sequence DNA. Crystallographic data on the straightness of A-tracts, the bendability of non-A sequences, and the identity of inclination angles in A-tract and non-A-tractB-DNA support only the general-sequence bending model. The pre-melting transition observed in A-tract DNA probably represents a relaxation of stiff adenine stacks to a flexible conformation more typical of general-sequence DNA.