气候变化对寒兰分布的影响及其分布格局模拟

通过实地调查及网上查阅得到寒兰分布数据共233个,并从世界气候网站下载19个气候因子数据,利用MaxEnt模型模拟寒兰潜在分布区,结合ArcGIS空间分析技术,模拟了寒兰不同时期分布格局,推测寒兰末次冰期和2070年分布格局.结果表明: 模型训练集的曲线下面积(AUC值)为0.957,验证集AUC值为0.953,模型预测的准确性较高.寒兰当前分布主要受最干季度降水量、年均降水量、最湿季度降水量和年均温度范围影响,其贡献率分别是50.3%、15.9%、8.4%、4.4%,总贡献率达79%.在末次冰期时代,寒兰分布区主要是武夷山、罗霄山、南岭、台湾五大山脉以及广西省北部一些丘陵.从当前到2070年,寒兰分布区域整体将缩小22.4%,其中,广西南部、云南中部及江西、福建、广东三省交界处等呈扩张趋势,而在江西东部、福建西部以及两省交界处的大部分区域呈收缩趋势.     

Oxygenic photosynthesis and the distribution of chloroplasts

The integrated functioning of two photosystems (I and II) whether in cyanobacteria or in chloroplasts is the outstanding sign of a common ancestral origin. Many variations on the basic theme are currently evident in oxygenic photosynthetic organisms whether they are prokaryotes, unicellular, or multicellular. By conservative estimates, oxygenic photosynthesis has been around for at least ca. 2.2–2.7 billions years, consistent with cyanobacteria-type microfossils, biomarkers, and an atmospheric rise in oxygen to less than 1.0% of the present concentration. The presumptions of chloroplast formation by the cyanobacterial uptake into a eukaryote prior to 1.6 BYa ago are confounded by assumptions of host type(s) and potential tolerance of oxygen toxicity. The attempted dating and interrelationships of particular chloroplasts in various plant or animal lineages has relied heavily on phylogenomic analysis and evaluations that have been difficult to confirm separately. Many variations occur in algal groups, involving the type and number of accessory pigments, and the number(s) of membranes (2–4) enclosing a chloroplast, which can both help and complicate inferences made about early or late origins of chloroplasts. Integration of updated phylogenomics with physiological and cytological observations remains a special challenge, but could lead to more accurate assumptions of initial and extant endosymbiotic event(s) leading toward stable chloroplast associations.     

On the distribution of developmental errors: comparing the normal, gamma, and log-normal distribution

The amount of between‐individual variation in the unobservable developmental instability (DI) has been the subject of intense recent debates. The unexpectedly high estimates of between‐individual variation in DI based on distributional characteristics of observable asymmetry values (of on average bilaterally symmetric traits) rely on statistical models that assume an underlying normal distribution of developmental errors. This prompted doubts on the assumption of the Gaussian nature of developmental errors. However, when applying other candidate distributions [log‐normal and gamma (γ)], recent analyses of empirical datasets have indicated that estimates remain generally high. Yet, all estimates were based on bilaterally symmetric traits, which did not allow for a formal comparison of the alternative distributions. In the present study, we extend a recent statistical model to allow statistical comparison of the different distributions based on traits that developed repeatedly under the same conditions, such as flower traits and regrown feathers. We analyse simulated and empirical data and show that: (1) it is statistically difficult to differentiate among the three alternatives when variances are small relative to the mean, as is often the case with DI; (2) the normal distribution fits the log‐normal or γ relatively well under those circumstances; (3) the deviance information criterion (DIC) is able to pick up differences in model fit among the three alternative distributions, yet more strongly so when levels of DI were high; (4) empirical datasets show a better fit of the normal over the log‐normal and γ‐distributions as judged by the DIC; and (5) estimates of between‐individual variation in DI in the three empirical datasets were relatively high (> 50%) under each distributional assumption. In conclusion, and based on our three datasets, the normal approximation appears to be a reasonable choice for statistical models of DI and the remarkably high estimates of variation in DI cannot be attributed to non‐normal developmental noise. Nevertheless, our method should be applied to a broad range of traits and organisms to evaluate the generality of this result. We argue that there is an urgent need for studies that reveal the underlying mechanisms of developmental noise and stability, as well as the role of developmental selection, in order to be able to determine the biological importance of the highly skewed distributions of developmental instability often observed. © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2007, 92 , 197–210.     

Assessing the distribution and conservation status of a long-horned beetle with species distribution models

Data shortfalls on species distribution affect species differently, but it is frequent among insects. Species distribution models (SDMs) are important tools to fill biogeographic deficits and provide support for practical conservation actions, particularly for cryptic or hard to survey species. We employed SDMs to evaluate one such species, the long-horned beetle (Macrodontia cervicornis), listed as ‘vulnerable’ in the IUCN’s Red List of Threatened Species. Given new distributional data for this species, we applied three different SDMs to: (1) provide the first assessment of this species’ distribution and potential dispersal routes; (2) evaluate the effectiveness of the current South American protected areas system for its conservation; and (3) discuss its potential distribution, as well as historical, biogeographical, and taxonomic issues related to it. Our models reached fair True Skilled Statistics values (TSS > 0.5), with the core area for M. cervicornis located in the Amazon forest, although suitable areas were also predicted along the Atlantic forest. Areas in the dry diagonal South American corridor (dry biomes of Cerrado, Caatinga, and Pampas) in South America were not predicted as suitable. The preference of M. cervicornis for humid areas with high temperatures may guarantee a better physiological control for dehydration, considering that large insects are more affected by water loss. In general, approximately 15 % of the distribution of M. cervicornis is in humid protected areas. The disconnected distribution of the long-horned beetle may be an indication of the existence of cryptic species under the same classification. We suggest that similar studies with other insect groups (e.g. butterflies, bees) should be conducted to properly assess their distributions, conservation status, and responses to hot-humid gradients throughout South America.     

使用大熊猫数据评估Biomod2和MaxEnt分布预测模型的表现

物种分布模型是物种研究和保护者常用的工具.不同模型的预测结果可能相差很大,对研究者选择模型造成一定的难度.本研究使用大熊猫的实际分布数据评估了两种常见物种分布模型Biomod2和最大熵模型(MaxEnt)的表现,运用ROC曲线下面积(area under the curve,AUC)、真实技巧统计值(true skill statistics,TSS)、KAPPA统计量3种指标综合评估了两种模型预测结果的准确度.结果表明: 当使用的物种分布数据和模拟重复次数足够多的时候,两者都能够给出相当准确的预测.相对于MaxEnt,Biomod2的预测准确度更高,尤其是在物种分布点稀少的情况下.然而,Biomod2使用难度较大,运行时间较长,数据处理能力有限.研究者应基于对预测结果的误差要求来选择模型.在误差要求明确且两个模型都能满足误差要求时,建议使用MaxEnt,否则应优先考虑使用Biomod2.     

Alpha-melanotropin in the frog brain: regional distribution, quantification and subcellular distribution

The distribution of alpha-MSH containing neurons was studied by immunofluorescence in the brain of the frog Rana ridibunda. Most immunoreactive cell bodies were found in the ventral hypothalamic area. A rich network of fluorescent fibers was observed in the ventral infundibular region, coursing towards the preoptic area and the ventral telencephalon. Some fibers, directed backwards, project into median eminence. By means of a specific radioimmunoassay, the concentrations of alpha-MSH immunoreactive material has been determined in 10 different regions of the brain. The highest concentrations were observed in the infundibular and the preoptic regions. Using the immunogold technique, electron microscopy showed that immunostaining was restricted to 70-100 nm dense core vesicles in positive cell bodies and fibers. These results suggest that, in addition to well known hormonal (melanotropic) activity, alpha-MSH could play the role of a neurotransmitter in the frog brain.     

Sika deer distribution and habitat selection: the influence of the availability and distribution of food, cover, and threats

Large populations of sika deer occur in lowland heath, woodland, and grassland mosaics in southern England. Previous studies have focused on understanding single factors potentially affecting distribution and habitat selection of sika deer rather than considering simultaneously effects of landscape configuration and human disturbance on their distribution and habitat selection. This study measured effects of habitat availability, landscape structure, and human disturbance on where sika deer placed their home ranges and habitat selection within those ranges. Two main hypotheses were tested: (1) habitat selection differs according to landscape structure and habitat availability at both landscape and home range scales and (2) distribution of sources of human disturbance within the home range of deer affects their distribution. Results from radiotracking 31 females provided support for the first hypothesis and partial support for the second. Habitat selection at the landscape and home range scales differed between landscapes with different habitat structure and availability and was driven by distribution and availability of food and cover and a perceived risk linked to disturbance. Furthermore, deer selected open areas close to cover and this selection was stronger with presence of human disturbance, although results differed between study areas with different habitat distribution and level of disturbance. The study highlights the importance for managing deer of a balance between grazing and cover resources and the distribution of human disturbance.     

The spatial distribution of neurons and glia in human cortex based on the poisson distribution

A method was devised that employs deviations from the Poisson distribution to analyze the spatial arrangement of neurons and glia in human cerebral cortex. A field of randomly distributed points equal in number of a sample field of neuronal or glial cells is generated by computer, and the proportion of cells in the sample field that are closer to the nearest neighboring cells than to the nearest randomly distributed point is determined. We call this proportion the "Poisson ratio." When the cells are randomly distributed, the Poisson ratio is equal to 0.5. If the Poisson ratio is less than 0.5, the cells are farther away from one another than a random distribution would predict (exclusionary pattern); if the Poisson ratio is greater than 0.5, the cells are closer to one another than a random distribution would predict (clustering). A simple nonparametric statistical test is used to determine the significance of differences in the ratios. This method was applied to samples of human cerebral cortex in order to test the hypothesis that patients with schizophrenic psychosis may have an altered pattern of neuronal clustering. The analysis revealed that there is no difference in the nearest-neighbor distribution of either neurons or glia between psychotic patients and controls. It was found, however, that there is a highly significant difference in the spatial distribution of neurons versus glia in human cerebral cortex. Neurons of layers II to VI in the human cortex show greater-than-expected distances among them and are distributed according to an exclusionary pattern, while neurons in layer I show a clustering pattern.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Plant distribution and the temperature coefficient of metabolism

The spatial distribution of a plant species is limited by the range of climatic conditions to which the species can adapt. Temperature is one of the most significant determinants of plant distribution, but except for the effects of lethal limits, little is known about physiological changes in responses to differences in environmental temperature. In this study, temperature coefficients of non-photosynthetic metabolism have been determined in the normal environmental temperature range for selected annual and perennial plants. Distinct differences were found in the temperature coefficient of metabolism of woody perennial plants from high latitudes and high elevations and closely related low-latitude and low-elevation plants. Low-latitude and low-elevation woody perennials have Arrhenius temperature coefficients for metabolism that are larger than those for congeneric high-latitude and high-elevation plants. The Arrhenius temperature coefficient is not rapidly adapted to new environments. A simple function was developed relating Arrhenius temperature coefficient to latitude and elevation for accessions of three, woody, perennial species complexes of plants collected from a wide geographic range but grown in common gardens. Within these taxa, plants that experience broader ranges of temperature during growth in their native habitat have smaller temperature coefficients. Temperature coefficients also varied with growth stage or season. No similar relationship was found for annuals and herbaceous perennials. For the plants tested, Arrhenius temperature coefficients are high during early spring growth, but shift to lower values later in the season. The shift in Arrhenius temperature coefficients occurs early in the season for southern and low-elevation plants and progressively later for plants from further north or higher elevation. The changes in Arrhenius temperature coefficients result largely from increases in plant metabolic rates at lower temperatures while little change occurs in the rates at higher temperatures. Altering the temperature dependence of the control of metabolic rate is apparently an important means of response to climate change.     

Local-regional relationships and the geographical distribution of species

Aim Local‐regional (LR) species diversity plots were conceived to assess the contribution of regional and local processes in shaping the patterns of biological diversity, but have been used also to explore the scaling of diversity in terms of its alpha, beta, and gamma components. Here we explore the idea that patterns in the geographical ranges of species over a continent can determine the shape of small region to large region (SRLR) plots, which are equivalent to LR plots when comparing the diversity of sites at two regional scales. Location To test that idea, we analysed the diversity patterns at two regional scales for the mammals of North America, defined as the mainland from Alaska and Canada to Panama. Method We developed a theoretical model relating average range size of species over a large‐scale region with its average regional point species diversity (RPD). Then, we generated a null model of expected SRLR plots based on theoretical predictions. Species diversities at two scales were modelled using linear and saturation functions for Type I and Type II SRLR relationships, respectively. We applied the models to the case of North American mammals by examining the regional diversity and the RPD for 21 large‐scale quadrats (with area equal to 160,000 km²), arranged along a latitudinal gradient. Results Our model showed that continental and large‐scale regional patterns of distribution of species can generate both types of SRLR relationship, and that these patterns can be reflected in LR plots without invoking any kind of local processes. We found that North American nonvolant mammals follow a Type I SRLR relationship, whereas bats follow a Type II pattern. This difference was linked to patterns in which species of the two mammalian groups distribute in geographical space. Conclusion Traditional LR plots and the new SRLR plots are useful tools in exploring the scaling of species diversity and in showing the relationship between distribution and diversity. Their usefulness in comparing the relative role of local and regional processes is, however, very limited.     

Utilitarianism and the disabled: distribution of resources

Utilitarianism is more convincing than resource egalitarianism or welfare egalitarianism as a theory of how resources should be distributed between disabled people and nondisabled people. Unlike resource egalitarianism, utilitarianism can redistribute resources to the disabled when they would benefit more from those resources than nondisabled people. Unlike welfare egalitarianism, utilitarianism can halt redistribution when the disabled would no longer benefit more than the nondisabled from additional resources.
The author considers one objection to this view: it has been argued, by Sen and others, that there are circumstances under which utilitarianism would unfairly distribute fewer resources to the physically disabled than to nondisabled people, on the ground that the disabled would derive less benefit from those resources. In response, the author claims that critics of utilitarianism have fallaciously exaggerated the circumstances under which the disabled would benefit less than the nondisabled from additional resources. In those limited circumstances in which the disabled really would benefit less from resources, the author argues, it does not seem unfair to distribute fewer resources to them.