Crystal structure of the flavoprotein ArsH from Sinorhizobium meliloti

Purified ArsH from Sinorhizobium meliloti exhibits NADPH:FMN-dependent reduction of molecular O2 to hydrogen peroxide and catalyzes reduction of azo dyes. The structure of ArsH was determined at 1.8A resolution. ArsH crystallizes with eight molecules in the asymmetric unit forming two tetramers. Each monomer has a core domain with a central five-stranded parallel beta-sheet and two monomers interact to form a classical flavodoxin-like dimer. The N- and C-terminal extensions of ArsH are involved in interactions between subunits and tetramer formation. The structure may provide insight in how ArsH participates in arsenic detoxification.     

Catalytic role of a conserved cysteine residue in the desulfonation reaction by the alkanesulfonate monooxygenase enzyme

Detailed kinetic studies were performed in order to determine the role of the single cysteine residue in the desulfonation reaction catalyzed by SsuD. Mutation of the conserved cysteine at position 54 in SsuD to either serine or alanine had little effect on FMNH₂ binding. The k_cat/K_m value for the C54S SsuD variant increased 3-fold, whereas the k_cat/K_m value for C54A SsuD decreased 6-fold relative to wild-type SsuD. An initial fast phase was observed in kinetic traces obtained for the oxidation of flavin at 370 nm when FMNH₂ was mixed against C54S SsuD (k_obs, 111 s^− 1) in oxygenated buffer that was 10-fold faster than wild-type SsuD (k_obs, 12.9 s^− 1). However, there was no initial fast phase observed in similar kinetic traces obtained for C54A SsuD. This initial fast phase was previously assigned to the formation of the C4a-(hydro)peroxyflavin in studies with wild-type SsuD. There was no evidence for the formation of the C4a-(hydro)peroxyflavin with either SsuD variant when octanesulfonate was included in rapid reaction kinetic studies, even at low octanesulfonate concentrations. The absence of any C4a-(hydro)peroxyflavin accumulation correlates with the increased catalytic activity of C54S SsuD. These results suggest that the conservative serine substitution is able to effectively take the place of cysteine in catalysis. Conversely, decreased accumulation of the C4a-(hydro)peroxyflavin intermediate with the C54A SsuD variant may be due to decreased activity. The data described suggest that Cys54 in SsuD may be either directly or indirectly involved in stabilizing the C4a-(hydro)peroxyflavin intermediate formed during catalysis through hydrogen bonding interactions.     

Aniline hydroxylase activities of haemoglobin: Kinetics and mechanism

The mechanism of the aniline hydroxylase activity of methaemoglobin in a monooxygenase system consisting of NADH as electron donor, riboflavin, FAD, FMN or methylene blue as electron carrier and methaemoglobin as the terminal oxidase has been studied. Hydrogen peroxide is produced from oxygen in a methaemoglobin-independent process. 4-Aminophenol is subsequently produced peroxidatively by an NADH-dependent process; NADH prevents a further oxidation of 4-aminophenol in the presence of haemoglobin. In the absence of electron carrier, NADH slowly reduces haemoglobin and then oxyhaemoglobin reacts with aniline to give 4-aminophenol. In the absence of electron donor and electron carrier, oxyhaemoglobin and aniline give rise to the reversible production of 4-aminophenol.     

Frame-shift mutations in NAD(P)H flavin oxidoreductase encoding gene (frxA) from metronidazole resistant Helicobacter pylori ATCC43504 and its involvement in metronidazole resistance

Metronidazole is a critical ingredient for combination therapies of Helicobacter pylori infection, the major cause of peptic ulcer and gastric cancer. It has been recently reported that metronidazole resistance from H. pylori ATCC43504 is caused by the insertion of a mini-IS605 sequence and deletion of sequences in an oxygen insensitive NAD(P)H nitroreductase encoding gene (rdxA). We also found that an additional gene (frxA) encoding NAD(P)H flavin oxidoreductase in the same strain was truncated by frame-shift mutations. To assess whether the frxA truncation is also involved in metronidazole resistance, metronidazole sensitive H. pylori strains ATCC43629 and SS1 were transformed by the truncated frxA gene cloned from strain ATCC43504. All transformed cells grew on agar plates containing 16 microg ml(-1) of metronidazole. The involvement of the frxA gene in metronidazole resistance was also confirmed by insertion inactivation of frxA and/or rdxA genes from strain ATCC43629 and one metronidazole sensitive clinical isolate H. pylori 2600. In addition, the frxA gene cloned from the H. pylori 2600 showed metronidazole nitroreductase activity in Escherichia coli and rendered ordinary metronidazole resistant E. coli to metronidazole sensitive cell. These results indicate that the frxA gene may also be involved in metronidazole resistance among clinical H. pylori isolates.     

Amplified luminometric assays of alkaline phosphatase using riboflavin phosphates

An asasy for alkaline phosphatase is described which is based on the hydrolysis of riboflavin phosphates (5′FMN or 4′FMN) to produce riboflavin. This is converted to 5′FMN using riboflavin kinase, and then asayed using the bacterial bioluminescent system from Vibrio harveyi or V. Fischeri. The most sensitive assay is obtained using 4′FMN, which can measure less than 20 amol after a 1-hour incubation.     

Characterization of NADPH–cytochrome P450 reductase gene from the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera

A complete cDNA encoding the NADPH–cytochrome P450 reductase (haCPR) and its genomic sequence from the cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera were cloned and sequenced. The open reading frame of haCPR codes for a protein of 687 amino acid residues with a calculated molecular mass of 77.4 kDa. The haCPR gene spans over 11 kb and its coding region is interrupted by 11 introns. haCPR is ubiquitously expressed in various tissues and at various stages of development. Escherichia coli produced haCPR enzyme exhibited catalytic activity for NADPH-dependent reduction of cytochrome c, following Michaelis–Menten kinetics. The functionality of CPR was further demonstrated by its capacity to support cytochrome P450 (e.g. haCYP9A14 and chicken CYP1A5) mediated O-dealkylation activity of alkoxyresorufins. The flavoprotein-specific inhibitor (diphenyleneiodonium chloride, DPI) showed a potent inhibition to haCPR activity (IC₅₀ = 1.69 μM). Inhibitory effect of secondary metabolites in the host plants (tannic acid, quercetin and gossypol) on CPR activity (with an IC₅₀ value ranged from 15 to 90 μM) was also observed.     

NAD+ accumulation as a metabolic off switch for orthodox pollen

Terrestrial plant pollen is classified into two categories based on its metabolic status: pollen with low-metabolism are termed “orthodox” and pollen with high-metabolism are termed “recalcitrant.” Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is crucial for a number of metabolisms in all extant organisms. It has recently been shown that NAD homeostasis plays an important role in a broad range of developmental processes and responses to environment. Recently, a reverse genetic approach shed light on the significance of NAD biosynthesis on pollen fate. In orthodox Arabidopsis pollen, NAD⁺ that was accumulated in excess at dispersal dramatically decreased on rehydration. The lack of a key gene that is involved in NAD biosynthesis compromised the excess accumulation. Moreover, absence of the excess accumulation phenocopied the so-called recalcitrant pollen, as demonstrated by the germination inside anthers and the loss of desiccation tolerance. Upon rehydration, NAD⁺-consuming inhibitors impaired tube germination. Taken together, our results suggest that accumulation of NAD⁺ functions as a physiochemical molecular switch for suspended metabolism and that the decrease of NAD⁺ plays a very important role during transitions in metabolic states. Shifting of the redox state to an oxidizing environment may efficiently control the comprehensive metabolic network underlying the onset of pollen germination.     

Different enzymes involved in NADH- and NADPH-dependent respiration in the cyanobacterium Anabaena variabilis

Abstract Filaments of N₂-grown Anabaena variabilis exhibit soluble NADPH- and membrane-bound NADH-oxidizing activities. The NADPH-specific enzyme has been identified as ferredoxin-NADP oxidoreductase (FNR; EC 1.18.1.2) by the thionicotinamide-NADP transhydrogenase test, a ferredoxin-dependent hydrogenase assay, and by diaphorase systems. The FNR is easily removed by washing of French-press-prepared membranes. Concurrently, a loss of NADPH-dependent respiration is apparent, which is not reconstitutable by addition of Anabaena cytochrome c -553. The NADH-oxidizing activity, however, is only slightly affected by the washing procedure, and is completely reconstituted by cytochrome c -553. NADPH-dependent oxygen uptake is strongly inhibited by NADP, whereas inhibition of NADH-dependent oxygen uptake by NAD is less pronounced. The data give evidence that NADH and NADPH oxidations linked to the respiratory chain are mediated by two different enzymes.     

A bacterial flavin reductase system reduces chromate to a soluble chromium(III)-NAD(+) complex

Biological reduction of carcinogenic chromate has been extensively studied in eukaryotic cells partly because the reduction produces stable chromium(III)-DNA adducts, which are mutagenic. Microbial reduction of chromate has been studied for bioremediation purposes, but little is known about the reduction mechanism. In eukaryotic cells chromate is mainly reduced non-enzymatically by ascorbate, which is usually absent in bacterial cells. We have characterized the reduction of chromate by a flavin reductase (Fre) from Escherichia coli with flavins. The Fre-flavin system rapidly reduced chromate, whereas chemical reduction by NADH and glutathione was very slow. Thus, enzymatic chromate reduction is likely the dominant mechanism in bacterial cells. Furthermore, the end-product was a soluble and stable Cr(III)-NAD(+) complex, instead of Cr(III) precipitate. Since intracellularly generated Cr(III) forms adducts with DNA, protein, glutathione, and ascorbate in eukaryotic cells, we suggest that the produced Cr(III) is primarily complexed to NAD(+), DNA, and other cellular components inside bacteria.     

Chromatographic detection of the acetohydroxy acid synthase isoenzymes of Escherichia coli K-12.

Two valine-sensitive acetohydroxy acid synthase activities were separable from $\text{Escherichia}\text{coli}$ K-12 cells by virtue of their different affinities for DEAE-cellulose eluted with a KC1 gradient. These activities appeared to be independent from a valine-resistant cryptic component expressed only in $\text{ilvO}$ regulatory mutants. The properties of the first and second activity were coincident to those of extracts of $\text{ilvB}$ and $\text{ilvHI}$ mutants, respectively. These data prove that the $\text{ilvB}$ and $\text{ilvHI}$ gene products exist in the cell as physically distinct acetohydroxy acid synthase isoenzymes.     

Inhibition of Nicotinamide Phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT), an Enzyme Essential for NAD+ Biosynthesis,Leads to Altered Carbohydrate Metabolism in Cancer Cells

Nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT) has been extensively studied due to its essential role in NAD⁺ biosynthesis in cancer cells and the prospect of developing novel therapeutics. To understand how NAMPT regulates cellular metabolism, we have shown that the treatment with FK866, a specific NAMPT inhibitor, leads to attenuation of glycolysis by blocking the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase step (Tan, B., Young, D. A., Lu, Z. H., Wang, T., Meier, T. I., Shepard, R. L., Roth, K., Zhai, Y., Huss, K., Kuo, M. S., Gillig, J., Parthasarathy, S., Burkholder, T. P., Smith, M. C., Geeganage, S., and Zhao, G. (2013) Pharmacological inhibition of nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT), an enzyme essential for NAD⁺ biosynthesis, in human cancer cells: metabolic basis and potential clinical implications. J. Biol. Chem. 288, 3500–3511). Due to technical limitations, we failed to separate isotopomers of phosphorylated sugars. In this study, we developed an enabling LC-MS methodology. Using this, we confirmed the previous findings and also showed that NAMPT inhibition led to accumulation of fructose 1-phosphate and sedoheptulose 1-phosphate but not glucose 6-phosphate, fructose 6-phosphate, and sedoheptulose 7-phosphate as previously thought. To investigate the metabolic basis of the metabolite formation, we carried out biochemical and cellular studies and established the following. First, glucose-labeling studies indicated that fructose 1-phosphate was derived from dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde, and sedoheptulose 1-phosphate was derived from dihydroxyacetone phosphate and erythrose via an aldolase reaction. Second, biochemical studies showed that aldolase indeed catalyzed these reactions. Third, glyceraldehyde- and erythrose-labeling studies showed increased incorporation of corresponding labels into fructose 1-phosphate and sedoheptulose 1-phosphate in FK866-treated cells. Fourth, NAMPT inhibition led to increased glyceraldehyde and erythrose levels in the cell. Finally, glucose-labeling studies showed accumulated fructose 1,6-bisphosphate in FK866-treated cells mainly derived from dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Taken together, this study shows that NAMPT inhibition leads to attenuation of glycolysis, resulting in further perturbation of carbohydrate metabolism in cancer cells. The potential clinical implications of these findings are also discussed.     

芯片毛细管电泳检测痕量酶活性的初步探讨

微芯片技术是基于微机电加工技术(MEMS)工艺,在芯片上完成电泳检测过程的新型技术．利用自制的微流控芯片及激光诱导荧光系统建立了痕量乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)活性的检测方法．以pH 9.4, 75 mmol/L硼酸为芯片电泳缓冲液,9.73 μmol/L乳酸钙为添加剂,整个电泳过程4 min结束,利用该法测得LDH检测限(S/N=3)为6×10^-3 U/L,出峰时间和峰面积的相对标准偏差分别为5.32%和3.17%,该法操作过程简单,检测灵敏度高,在临床痕量酶检测中具有较好的应用前景．     

烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸和Sirtuins在衰老和疾病中的作用

烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NAD⁺)作为氧化还原反应的重要辅酶,是能量代谢的核心。NAD⁺也是非氧化还原NAD⁺依赖性酶的共底物,包括沉默信息调节因子(Sirtuins)、聚ADP-核糖聚合酶(poly ADP-ribose polymerases, PARPs)、CD38/CD157胞外酶等。NAD⁺已成为细胞信号转导和细胞存活的关键调节剂。最近的研究表明,Sirtuins催化多种NAD⁺依赖性反应,包括去乙酰化、脱酰基化和ADP-核糖基化。Sirtuins催化活性取决于NAD⁺水平的高低。因此,Sirtuins是细胞代谢和氧化还原状态关键传感器。哺乳动物中已经鉴定并表征了7个Sirtuins家族成员(SIRT1-7),其参与炎症、细胞生长、生理节律、能量代谢、神经元功能、应激反应和健康衰老等多种生理过程。本文归纳了NAD⁺的生理浓度及状态、NAD⁺     

Rapid fluorescent visualization of multiple NAD(P)H oxidoreductases in homogenate,permeabilized cells,and tissue slices

Intracellular NAD(P)H oxidoreductases are a class of diverse enzymes that are the key players in a number of vital processes. The method we present and validate here is based on the ability of many NAD(P)H oxidoreductases to reduce the superoxide probe lucigenin, which is structurally similar to flavins, to its highly fluorescent water-insoluble derivative dimethylbiacridene. Two modifications of the method are proposed: (i) an express method for tissue homogenate and permeabilized cells in suspensions and (ii) a standard procedure for cells in culture and acute thin tissue slices. The method allows one to assess, visualize, and localize, using fluorescent markers of cellular compartments, multiple NADH and NADPH oxidoreductase activities. The application of selective inhibitors (e.g., VAS2870, a NOX2 inhibitor; plumbagin, a NOX4 inhibitor) allows one to distinguish and compare specific NAD(P)H oxidoreductase activities in cells and tissues and to attribute them to known enzymes. The method is simple, rapid, and flexible. It can be easily adapted to a variety of tasks. It will be useful for investigations of the role of various NAD(P)H oxidoreductases in a number of physiological and pathophysiological processes.     

Thermosensitive respiratory deficiency in yeast associated with specific effects on particulate cytochrome oxidase.

A mutant of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, unable to grow at the expense of non fermentable carbon sources at 37 degrees C, has been selected; at 25 degrees C the mutant strain behaves like the parental wild strain. Evaluations of respiration rates during aerobic growth at restrictive temperature on one hand, enzymatic and/or spectral evaluations of the individual components of the respiratory chain on the other hand show that the respiratory deficiency is specifically correlated with a reduced level of cytochrome oxidase. The decrease of enzyme activity is the direct consequence of a lowering of hemoprotein (a,a3) concentration. Temperature-activity relationship of cytochrome oxidase elaborated at the permissive temperature by the mutant strain is modified as far as the particulate enzyme is concerned, but no difference is observed after partial solubilization of the enzyme by non ionic surfactant. Genetic analysis shows that the mutant phenotype results from a nuclear gene mutation.     

Cytotoxicity of RH1 and related aziridinylbenzoquinones: involvement of activation by NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1) and oxidative stress

It is supposed that the main cytotoxicity mechanism of antitumour aziridinyl-substituted benzoquinones is their two-electron reduction to alkylating products by NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1, DT-diaphorase, EC 1.6.99.2). However, other possible cytotoxicity mechanisms, e.g., oxidative stress, are studied insufficiently. In the single-electron reduction of quinones including a novel compound RH1 (2,5-diaziridinyl- 3-(hydroxymethyl)-6-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone), by NADPH:cytochrome P-450 reductase (EC 1.6.2.4, P-450R), their reactivity increased with an increase in the redox potential of quinone/semiquinone couple (E(1)7), reaching a limiting value at E(1)7> or =-0.1V. The reactivity of quinones towards NQO1 did not depend on their E(1)7. The cytotoxicity of aziridinyl-unsubstituted quinones in bovine leukemia virus-transformed lamb kidney fibroblasts (line FLK) mimics their reactivity in P-450R-catalyzed reactions, exhibiting a parabolic dependence on their E(1)7. The toxicity of aziridinyl-benzoquinones, although being higher, also followed this trend and did not depend on their reactivity towards NQO1. The action of aziridinylbenzoquinones in FLK cells was accompanied by an increase in lipid peroxidation, their toxicity decreased by desferrioxamine and the antioxidant N,N'-diphenyl-p-phenylene diamine, and potentiated by 1,3-bis-(2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea. The inhibitor of NQO1, dicumarol, protected against the toxicity of aziridinyl-benzoquinones except of 2,5-bis-(2'-hydroxyethylamino)-3,6-diaziridinyl-1,4-benzoquinone (BZQ), which was almost inactive as NQO1 substrate. The same events except the absence of pronounced effect of dicumarol were characteristic in the cytotoxicity of aziridinyl-unsubstituted quinones. These findings indicate that in addition to the activation by NQO1, the oxidative stress presumably initiated by single-electron transferring enzymes may be an important factor in the cytotoxicity of aziridinylbenzoquinones. The information obtained may contribute to the understanding of the molecular mechanisms of aziridinylquinone cytotoxicity and may be useful in the design of future bioreductive drugs.