Two chimeric receptors of epidermal growth factor receptor and c-Ros that differ in their transmembrane domains have opposite effects on cell growth.

Two chimeric receptors, ER1 and ER2, were constructed. ER1 contains the extracellular and transmembrane (TM) domains derived from epidermal growth factor receptor and the cytoplasmic domain from c-Ros; ER2 is identical to ER1 except that its TM domain is derived from c-Ros. Both chimeras can be activated by epidermal growth factor and are capable of activating or phosphorylating an array of cellular signaling proteins. Both chimeras promote colony formation in soft agar with about equal efficiency. Surprisingly, ER1 inhibits while ER2 stimulates cell growth on monolayer culture. Cell cycle analysis revealed that all phases, in particular the S and G2/M phases, of the cell cycle in ER1 cells were elongated whereas G1 phase of ER2 cells was shortened threefold. Comparison of signaling pathways mediated by the two chimeras revealed several differences. Several early signaling proteins are activated or phosphorylated to a higher extent in ER1 than in ER2 cells in response to epidermal growth factor. ER1 is less efficiently internalized and remains tyrosine phosphorylated for a longer time than ER2. However, phosphorylation of the 66-kDa She protein, activation of mitogen activated protein kinase, and induction of c-fos and c-jun occur either to a lesser extent or for a shorter time in ER1 cells. Cellular protein phosphorylation patterns are also different in ER1 and ER2 cells. In particular, a 190-kDa Shc-associated protein is tyrosine phosphorylated in ER2 but not in ER1 cells. Our results indicate that the TM domains have a profound effect on the signal transduction and biological activity of those chimeric receptors. The results also imply that sustained stimulation of ER1 due to its retarded internalization apparently triggers an inhibitory response that dominantly counteracts the receptor-mediated mitogenic signals. These two chimeras, expressed at similar levels in the same cell type but having opposite effects on cell growth, provide an ideal system to study the mechanism by which a protein tyrosine kinase inhibits cell growth.     

兴国红鲤ER基因克隆表达及EE2暴露对肝中ER表达的影响

为评估环境内分泌干扰物对鱼类的影响,研究克隆了兴国红鲤雌激素受体（Estrogen receptor,ER）4种亚型ERα、ERβ、ERβ1、ERβ2的全长cDNA序列,氨基酸序列比对发现兴国红鲤ERs分别与3种鲤科鱼类相应亚型具有较高的同源性。实时荧光定量PCR（qRT-PCR）检测结果表明,4种ER亚型mRNA在雌雄成体组织中呈现差异表达,雌性个体中,肝、卵巢和肠中4种ERs的表达量均较高;在雄性个体中,ERα和ERβ主要在肝中表达,ERβ1、ERβ2分别在肠和精巢中的表达量最高。将150日龄的兴国红鲤幼鱼分别暴露在0.01、0.1和1 nmol/L的17α-乙炔基雌二醇（EE2）中4周,检测了雌性幼鱼肝中4种ER基因的表达变化情况。在EE2中暴露1-2周后,兴国红鲤雌性幼鱼肝中ERα基因的表达水平有极显著的提升;各浓度EE2能持续显著促进其肝中ERβ的表达;在1-2周内各浓度EE2对ERβ1表达有所抑制;第1周EE2能够抑制ERβ2基因mRNA的表达,并在0.01 nmol/L时抑制作用达到了显著的水平。上述研究结果表明,EE2暴露能诱导或抑制兴国红鲤雌性幼鱼肝中ER亚型的表达,相对于ERβ、ERβ1和ERβ2、ERα可作为EE2短期（1-2周）敏感性生物学标记。     

STIM1 is a MT-plus-end-tracking protein involved in remodeling of the ER

Stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) is a transmembrane protein that is essential for store-operated Ca(2+) entry, a process of extracellular Ca(2+) influx in response to the depletion of Ca(2+) stores in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (reviewed in [1-4]). STIM1 localizes predominantly to the ER; upon Ca(2+) release from the ER, STIM1 translocates to the ER-plasma membrane junctions and activates Ca(2+) channels (reviewed in [1-4]). Here, we show that STIM1 directly binds to the microtubule-plus-end-tracking protein EB1 and forms EB1-dependent comet-like accumulations at the sites where polymerizing microtubule ends come in contact with the ER network. Therefore, the previously observed tubulovesicular motility of GFP-STIM1 [5] is not a motor-based movement but a traveling wave of diffusion-dependent STIM1 concentration in the ER membrane. STIM1 overexpression strongly stimulates ER extension occurring through the microtubule "tip attachment complex" (TAC) mechanism [6, 7], a process whereby an ER tubule attaches to and elongates together with the EB1-positive end of a growing microtubule. Depletion of STIM1 and EB1 decreases TAC-dependent ER protrusion, indicating that microtubule growth-dependent concentration of STIM1 in the ER membrane plays a role in ER remodeling.     

Human HRD1 protects against ER stress-induced apoptosis through ER-associated degradation

Stresses that impair the function of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lead to an accumulation of unfolded protein in the ER. Under these conditions, the expression of a variety of genes involved in preventing the accumulation of the unfolded proteins is induced. Yeast Hrd1p is an ER stress-inducible ER membrane protein that acts as a ubiquitin ligase (E3) with a RING finger motif and plays a role in the ubiquitination of proteins in the ER. We report here the identification and characterization of a human homolog to yeast Hrd1p. The predicted structures are highly conserved from yeast to humans. Indeed, human HRD1 was localized to the ER and ubiquitinated its substrates. Furthermore, it was found that human HRD1 was up-regulated by ER stress via IRE1 and ATF6, which are ER stress transducers. Interestingly, 293 cells stably expressing wild-type HRD1, but not the C329S mutant, afforded resistance to ER stress-induced apoptosis. These results suggest that the production of HRD1 is up-regulated to protect against ER stress-induced apoptosis by degrading unfolded proteins accumulated in the ER.     

A role for Rab5 in structuring the endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a contiguous network of interconnected membrane sheets and tubules. The ER is differentiated into distinct domains, including the peripheral ER and nuclear envelope. Inhibition of two ER proteins, Rtn4a and DP1/NogoA, was previously shown to inhibit the formation of ER tubules in vitro. We show that the formation of ER tubules in vitro also requires a Rab family GTPase. Characterization of the 29 Caenorhabditis elegans Rab GTPases reveals that depletion of RAB-5 phenocopies the defects in peripheral ER structure that result from depletion of RET-1 and YOP-1, the C. elegans homologues of Rtn4a and DP1/NogoA. Perturbation of endocytosis by other means did not affect ER structure; the role of RAB-5 in ER morphology is thus independent of its well-studied requirement for endocytosis. RAB-5 and YOP-1/RET-1 also control the kinetics of nuclear envelope disassembly, which suggests an important role for the morphology of the peripheral ER in this process.     

Reciprocal roles of DBC1 and SIRT1 in regulating estrogen receptor α activity and co-activator synergy

Estrogen receptor α (ERα) plays critical roles in development and progression of breast cancer. Because ERα activity is strictly dependent upon the interaction with coregulators, coregulators are also believed to contribute to breast tumorigenesis. Cell Cycle and Apoptosis Regulator 1 (CCAR1) is an important co-activator for estrogen-induced gene expression and estrogen-dependent growth of breast cancer cells. Here, we identified Deleted in Breast Cancer 1 (DBC1) as a CCAR1 binding protein. DBC1 was recently shown to function as a negative regulator of the NAD-dependent protein deacetylase SIRT1. DBC1 associates directly with ERα and cooperates synergistically with CCAR1 to enhance ERα function. DBC1 is required for estrogen-induced expression of a subset of ERα target genes as well as breast cancer cell proliferation and for estrogen-induced recruitment of ERα to the target promoters in a gene-specific manner. The mechanism of DBC1 action involves inhibition of SIRT1 interaction with ERα and of SIRT1-mediated deacetylation of ERα. SIRT1 also represses the co-activator synergy between DBC1 and CCAR1 by binding to DBC1 and disrupting its interaction with CCAR1. Our results indicate that DBC1 and SIRT1 play reciprocal roles as major regulators of ERα activity, by regulating DNA binding by ERα and by regulating co-activator synergy.     

乳腺癌雌激素受体β不同亚型表达载体的构建及其转录活性分析

目的：构建人乳腺癌中雌激素受体B（ERβ）3种亚型ERβ1、ERβ2和ERβ5的真核表达载体,测定不同亚型ERβ的转录活性。方法：以乳腺癌细胞MCF7的cDNA为模板,PCR扩增ERβ1、ERβ2和ERβ5万基因,分别克隆到pXJ40-Mye载体,Western印迹检测克隆载体在293T细胞内的表达;将上述载体与含雌激素应答元件（ERE）的萤光素酶（Luc）报告基因载体（ERE—luc）共转293T细胞,测定各亚型ER／3的转录活性。结果：构建了Myc—ERβ1、Myc—ERβ2和Mye—ERβ5表达载体,转录活性结果显示上述表达载体均具有活性,雌激素可升高ERβ5的转录活性,不能升高Eβ2和ER5的转录活性。结论：该研究为进-步探讨不同亚型ERβ在乳腺癌中的功能奠定了基础。     

Transmembrane and Coiled-Coil Domain Family 1 Is a Novel Protein of the Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a continuous membrane network in eukaryotic cells comprising the nuclear envelope, the rough ER, and the smooth ER. The ER has multiple critical functions and a characteristic structure. In this study, we identified a new protein of the ER, TMCC1 (transmembrane and coiled-coil domain family 1). The TMCC family consists of at least 3 putative proteins (TMCC1–3) that are conserved from nematode to human. We show that TMCC1 is an ER protein that is expressed in diverse human cell lines. TMCC1 contains 2 adjacent transmembrane domains near the C-terminus, in addition to coiled-coil domains. TMCC1 was targeted to the rough ER through the transmembrane domains, whereas the N-terminal region and C-terminal tail of TMCC1 were found to reside in the cytoplasm. Moreover, the cytosolic region of TMCC1 formed homo- or hetero-dimers or oligomers with other TMCC proteins and interacted with ribosomal proteins. Notably, overexpression of TMCC1 or its transmembrane domains caused defects in ER morphology. Our results suggest roles of TMCC1 in ER organization.     

Depletion of Molecular Chaperones from the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Fragmentation of the Golgi Apparatus Associated with Pathogenesis in Pelizaeus-Merzbacher Disease

Missense mutations in the proteolipid protein 1 (PLP1) gene cause a wide spectrum of hypomyelinating disorders, from mild spastic paraplegia type 2 to severe Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease (PMD). Mutant PLP1 accumulates in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and induces ER stress. However, the link between the clinical severity of PMD and the cellular response induced by mutant PLP1 remains largely unknown. Accumulation of misfolded proteins in the ER generally leads to up-regulation of ER chaperones to alleviate ER stress. Here, we found that expression of the PLP1-A243V mutant, which causes severe disease, depletes some ER chaperones with a KDEL (Lys-Asp-Glu-Leu) motif, in HeLa cells, MO3.13 oligodendrocytic cells, and primary oligodendrocytes. The same PLP1 mutant also induces fragmentation of the Golgi apparatus (GA). These organelle changes are less prominent in cells with milder disease-associated PLP1 mutants. Similar changes are also observed in cells expressing another disease-causing gene that triggers ER stress, as well as in cells treated with brefeldin A, which induces ER stress and GA fragmentation by inhibiting GA to ER trafficking. We also found that mutant PLP1 disturbs localization of the KDEL receptor, which transports the chaperones with the KDEL motif from the GA to the ER. These data show that PLP1 mutants inhibit GA to ER trafficking, which reduces the supply of ER chaperones and induces GA fragmentation. We propose that depletion of ER chaperones and GA fragmentation induced by mutant misfolded proteins contribute to the pathogenesis of inherited ER stress-related diseases and affect the disease severity.     

Inhibition of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-induced Apoptosis by Silkworm Storage Protein 1

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) plays essential roles indispensable for cellular activity and survival, including functions such as protein synthesis, secretory and membrane protein folding, and Ca²⁺ release in cells. The ER is sensitive to stresses that can lead to the aggregation and accumulation of misfolded proteins, which eventually triggers cellular dysfunction; severe or prolonged ER stress eventually induces apoptosis. ER stress-induced apoptosis causes several devastating diseases such as atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative diseases, and diabetes. In addition, the production of biopharmaceuticals such as monoclonal antibodies requires the maintenance of normal ER functions to achieve and maintain the production of high-quality products in good quantities. Therefore, it is necessary to develop methods to efficiently relieve ER stress and protect cells from ER stress-induced apoptosis. The silkworm storage protein 1 (SP1) has anti-apoptotic activities that inhibit the intrinsic mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. However, the role of SP1 in controlling ER stress and ER stress-induced apoptosis has not been investigated. In this paper, we demonstrate that SP1 can inhibit apoptosis induced by a well-known ER stress inducer, thapsigargin, by alleviating the decrease in cell viability and mitochondrial membrane potential. Interestingly, SP1 significantly blocked increases in CHOP and GRP78 expression as well as ER Ca2+ leakage into the cytosol following ER stress induction. This indicates that SP1 protects cells from ER stressinduced apoptosis by functioning as an upstream inhibitor of apoptosis. Therefore, studying SP1 function can offer new insights into protecting cells against ER stress-induced apoptosis for future applications in the biopharmaceutical and medicine industries.