Teratogenic effects of nickel chloride on embryonic mice and its transfer to embryonic mice.

Administration of nickel chloride to the pregnant mice on the seventh to eleventh day of their gestational period, resulted in significant embryotoxic effects in terms of an increased resorption rate, a decreased fetal weight, delay in skeletal ossification and high incidence of malformation. Among the cases of fetal malformation, the following malformations were observed to occur at a higher rate of incidence: acephalia, exencephaly, cerebral hernia, open eyelid, cleft palate, micromelia, ankylosis of the extremity, club foot and skeletal anomalies. Most skeletal anomalies were in the form of vertebral and/or rib fusions and were found mostly at thoracic and lumbar levels. The concentration of nickel retained in embryonic tissues was 800 times higher in the exposed compared to control groups and indicated that increased tissue levels of nickel chloride had a toxic influence on the developing embryo.     

Technical note: Mapping of trabecular bone anisotropy and volume fraction in 3D using μCT images of the human calcaneus

Trabecular bone anisotropy, describing preferential trabecular co-alignment, is a proxy for its long-term loading history. Trabecular anisotropy varies locally, thus rendering averaged calculations across an entire bone inutile. Here we present a 3D trabecular anisotropy mapping method using vector fields where each vector reflects the extent of local co-alignment of the elementary units of surface. 3D anisotropy maps of hundreds of thousands of vectors were visualized by their magnitude and direction. Similarly, volume fraction was mapped as 3D scalar fields. We constructed anisotropy and volume fraction maps using micro-computed tomography of four presumably nonpathologic human calcanei and compared their anisotropy signature with pathologically loaded calcanei in club foot and calcaneonavicular ankylosis. In the nonpathologic calcaneus, a pattern of four anisotropy trajectories (bands) was consistently identified as dorsal, plantar, Achilles', and peroneal bands. Both pathologic specimens deviated from the nonpathologic maps. The calcaneus in the congenitally disused club foot showed very low local anisotropy values, no co-oriented bands, and low volume fraction. The ankylosed calcaneus showed lower anisotropy than the nonpathologic calcaneus, but not to the same extent as the club foot, and showed patchy high volume fraction. The directionality of co-oriented bands was barely discernable in the ankylosed calcaneus as compared to nonpathologic calcaneus. The anisotropy signature of the nonpathologic calcaneus is consistent with a kinetic loading pattern attributable to walking. The loss of this kinetic loading results in an absent/vanishing anisotropy signature. Such 3D mapping adds new dimensions to quantitative bioimaging of bone and the understanding of skeletal adaptation.     

The relationship between isometric force-time curve characteristics and club head speed in recreational golfers

ABSTRACT: Leary, BK, Statler, J, Hopkins, B, Fitzwater, R, Kesling, T, Lyon, J, Phillips, B, Bryner, RW, Cormie, P, and Haff, GG. The relationship between isometric force-time curve characteristics and club head speed in recreational golfers. J Strength Cond Res 26(10): 2685-2697, 2012-The primary purpose of the present investigation was to examine the relationships between club head speed, isometric midthigh pull performance, and vertical jump performance in a cohort of recreational golfers. Twelve recreational golfers (age, 20.4 ± 1.0 years; weight, 77.0 ± 9.8 kg; height, 177.8 ± 6.3 cm; body fat, 17.1 ± 7.6%; handicap, 14.5 ± 7.3; experience, 8.9 ± 3.6 years) completed 3 testing sessions: (a) familiarization session and body composition measurements; (b) measurement of force-time curves in the isometric midthigh pull, countermovement, and static vertical jump (SJ); and (c) measurement of club head speed. During sessions 1 and 2, subjects performed 5 countermovement jumps, 5 SJ, and 2 isometric midthigh pulls. Isometric peak force was measured at 30, 50, 90, 100, 200, and 250 milliseconds. Rate of force development was measured among 0-30, 0-50, 0-90, 0-100, 0-200, and 0-250 milliseconds. Peak rate of force development was determined as the highest value in a 10-millisecond sampling windows. During session 3, subjects performed 10 maximal golf swings with a driver to measure club head speed; peak and average club head speed were analyzed across the 10 swings. Golf handicap was moderately correlated with average (r = -0.52, p = 0.04) and maximal club head speed (r = -0.45, p = 0.07). Force at 150 milliseconds during the isomeric midthigh pull test was moderately correlated with average (r = 0.46, p = 0.07) and maximal club head speed (r = 0.47, p = 0.06). Moderate correlations were also found between the rate of force development from 0 to 150 milliseconds and average (r = 0.38, p = 0.11) and maximal club head speed (r = 0.36, p = 0.12). The present findings suggest that the ability to exhibit high ground reaction forces in time frames <200 milliseconds are related to high club head speeds.     

Socializing makes thick-skinned individuals: on the density of epidermal alarm substance cells in cyprinid fish, the crucian carp (Carassius carassius)

In cyprinid fish, density of epidermal club cells (i.e. alarm substance cells) has been found to vary between lakes with different predator fauna. Because predators can be labelled with chemical cues from prey, we questioned if club cell density could be controlled indirectly by predators releasing prey cues. In particular, we suspected a possible feedback mechanism between chemical alarm signals and their cellular source. We raised crucian carp singly and in groups of four. For both rearing types, fish were exposed to skin extracts of either conspecifics or brown trout (without club cells), and provided either low or high food rations. Independent of rearing type, condition factor and club cell density increased with food ration size, but no change was found in club cell density following exposure to conspecific alarm signals. However, the density of club cells was found significantly higher for fish raised in groups than for fish raised alone. We conclude that an increased condition factor results in more club cells, but crucian carp may also possess an awareness of conspecific presence, given by higher club cell densities when raised in groups. This increase in club cell density may be induced by unknown chemical factors released by conspecifics.     

Morphological and structural study of Landolt's club in the chick retina

Light and electron microscopy were used to study Landolt's club of the bipolar cells in the newborn chick retina as well as in early embryonic stages. In the embryo, the bipolar cells were connected to the outer limiting membrane by Landolt's club. Some of the bipolar cells disconnect from this membrane, by complete retraction of Landolt's club, giving rise to bipolar cells without this process. The newly hatched chick, was used for analysis of the ultrastructure of Landolt's club. Zones of apposition between Muller cells and Landolt's club are associated with cytoplasmic vesicles in both cells. Muller cells appear to transmit vesicular material, possibly nutrients, to bipolar cells through Landolt's club. Thus, Landolt's club provides substrates to bipolar cells in the poorly vascularized region of the chick retina.     

Functional training improves club head speed and functional fitness in older golfers

Functional training programs have been used in a variety of rehabilitation settings with documented success. Based on that success, the concept of functional training has gained popularity in applied fitness settings to enhance sport performance. However, there has been little or no research studying the efficacy of functional training programs on the improvement of sport performance or functional fitness. Thus, it was the purpose of this study to determine the effect of a progressive functional training program on club head speed and functional fitness in older male golfers. Eighteen male golfers (age: 70.7 +/- 9.1 [SD] years) were randomly assigned to an exercise (N = 11) or control (N = 7) group. The exercise group participated in an 8-week progressive functional training program including flexibility exercises, core stability exercises, balance exercises, and resistance exercises. Pre- and postmeasurements included club head speed of a driver by radar (exercise and Control) and Fullerton Senior Fitness Test measurements (exercise only). One-way analysis of covariance was performed on club head speed measurements using pretest measurements as the covariate. Paired t-tests were performed to analyze Senior Fitness Test variables. After the intervention, maximal club head speed increased in the exercise group (127.3 +/- 13.4 to 133.6 +/- 14.2 km x hr(-1)) compared with the control group (134.5 +/- 14.6 to 133.3 +/- 11.2 km x hr(-1); p < 0.05). Additionally, improvements (p < 0.05) were detected for most Senior Fitness Test variables in the exercise group. In summary, this functional training program resulted in significant improvements in club head speed and several components of functional fitness. Future research should continue to examine the effect of functional training programs on sport performance and functional fitness in older adults.     

Malformations in rat fetuses induced by trypan blue

Malformations of fetuses obtained from Wistar rat dams treated with trypan blue during gestation were studied. Fetuses were examined on day 20 of gestation. One hundred and twenty-seven fetuses showed abnormalities of the external features, skeleton and internal organs, separately or in combination. External malformations were found in 108 fetuses. The most frequent external malformation was anomaly of tail. Spina bifida, club foot, exencephaly and anal atresia were also observed frequently. Skeletal malformations were detected in 48 fetuses. Deformity of vertebrae in the lumbar, sacral and/or caudal regions was found in 46 fetuses. Internal malformations were observed in 27 fetuses. Anomaly of heart and/or great vessels, hydrocephaly and micro- or anophthalmia were observed frequently. About 90% of the fetuses with skeletal malformations also showed some external malformations. In contrast, about 48% of the fetuses with internal malformations also had some external malformations. These results suggest that, for teratological study, internal examination is more important in detecting malformations of fetuses than skeletal examination.     

46,XX/46,XX,del (10) (p13)/47,XX,+r/47,XX,del (10) (p13), + r mosaicism and partial trisomy 10p phenotype (author's transl)]

The mosaicism 46,XX/46,XX,del(10)(p13)/47,XX, +r/47,XX,del(10)(p13), +r was found in the lymphocytes and the fibroblasts of a patient with the following : profound mental retardation; craniofacial dysmorphism with frontal bossing, fine eyebrows, a large hypoplastic nasal bridge, prognathism of the upper jaw, thick lips; a long and thin neck; congenital heart disease; skeletal malformations, with club feet; and hypotonia and lax ligaments. These malformations, compatible with the trisomy 10p syndrome, suggest that the supernumerary ring chromosome was composed of 10p material. An increase of HK1 and GOT1 activities was found. This is in favour of a partial trisomy of chromosome 10. The relative frequencies of the clones constituting the mosaic vary from tissue to tissue and with time.     

Effect of an anionic detergent—sodium dodecyl sulphate exposure on club cells in the epidermis of Clarias batrachus

When treated with detergent club cells showed degenerative changes and released their contents to plug the intercellular spaces. This mechanism could act as an efficient protective barrier substantiating the role of club cells in assisting fish to overcome adverse conditions. A general decrease in the dimensions of club cells was associated with discharge of their contents. The appearance of juvenile club cells reflected their differentiation in response to increased demands to meet the challenge. Increases in the number of club cells indicated the differentiation of these cells at a rate faster than their degeneration. Localization of glycogen in club cells at the start of detergent treatment and, in general, its absence later and, in both control and juvenile club cells, is discussed in relation to the metabolic status of the cells. No marked shift was observed in the mucopolysaccharide and protein moieties of club cells.     

Development of epidermal and mucosal galectin containing cells in metamorphosing leptocephali of Japanese conger

The epidermis of premetamorphic leptocephali of Japanese conger Conger myriaster consisted of only a few cell layers including congerin- (a galectin) containing club cells. The epidermis increased in thickness after metamorphosis, mainly due to a preponderant development of club cells. This suggested that the biological significance of congerins increased at this stage, which may be related to a change in life style. Epidermal mucous cells showed only limited distribution. Immuno-positive cells in the mucosal epithelia of the buccal cavity wall and oesophagus were not found in the youngest individuals. Though these cells were observed at the commencement of metamorphosis, the development of the epithelia and club cells was apparently retarded compared to that of the epidermis. No immuno-staining was found in the gills at any stages.     

Towards Developing an Initial Programme Theory: Programme Designers and Managers Assumptions on the Antiretroviral Treatment Adherence Club Programme in Primary Health Care Facilities in the Metropolitan Area of Western Cape Province,South Africa

BackgroundThe antiretroviral adherence club intervention was rolled out in primary health care facilities in the Western Cape province of South Africa to relieve clinic congestion, and improve retention in care, and treatment adherence in the face of growing patient loads. We adopted the realist evaluation approach to evaluate what aspects of antiretroviral club intervention works, for what sections of the patient population, and under which community and health systems contexts, to inform guidelines for scaling up of the intervention. In this article, we report on a step towards the development of a programme theory—the assumptions of programme designers and health service managers with regard to how and why the adherence club intervention is expected to achieve its goals and perceptions on how it has done so (or not).MethodsWe adopted an exploratory qualitative research design. We conducted a document review of 12 documents on the design and implementation of the adherence club intervention, and key informant interviews with 12 purposively selected programme designers and managers. Thematic content analysis was used to identify themes attributed to the programme actors, context, mechanisms, and outcomes. Using the context-mechanism-outcome configurational tool, we provided an explanatory focus of how the adherence club intervention is roll-out and works guided by the realist perspective.ResultsWe classified the assumptions of the adherence club designers and managers into the rollout, implementation, and utilisation of the adherence club programme, constructed around the providers, management/operational staff, and patients, respectively. Two rival theories were identified at the patient-perspective level. We used these perspectives to develop an initial programme theory of the adherence club intervention, which will be tested in a later phase.ConclusionThe perspectives of the programme designers and managers provided an important step towards developing an initial programme theory, which will guide our realist evaluation of the adherence club programme in South Africa.     

Bioeconomics of schooling fishes: selfish fish, quasi-free riders, and other fishy tales

Applying the economic theory of clubs to the biological literature on schooling fish, this paper develops a 'selfish fish' club-theoretic paradigm of why fish join a fish school, and arrive at the following conclusions. A selfish fish: (a) joins the fish school because it derives hydrodynamic benefits (a club good); the selfish fish is a 'quasi-free rider'; (b) has no incentive to completely free ride on the benefits of the club good, because it will be, literally, left behind by the school; the fish school is a self-enforcing exclusive club; (c) has no incentive to shirk leadership role in the school because of the role reversibility of leaders and followers; (d) derives benefits from defense, another club good, via the many anti-predator defensive devices provided by club members; (e) has no incentive to discriminate against odd-looking outsiders, since odd-looking fish in a fish school are attacked by predators more frequently than look alikes. But outsiders display xenophobia toward insiders because outsiders do not wish to become prime targets for predators; the result is the formation of homotypic fish schools. Finally, (f) since escape is the main anti-predator defense manoeuvre, the 'any-one leader' rule for making collective choice of escape is the optimal decision-making rule for members of a fish school; this explains the leaderless, completely decentralized form of organization of fish schools. This paper thus contribute to new and deeper insights into various aspects of the bioeconomics of schooling fish.     

Induction of auxin biosynthetic enzymes by jasmonic acid and in clubroot diseased Chinese cabbage plants

Nitrilase (NIT) and myrosinase are important enzymes for auxin biosynthesis in Brassicaceae, which is increased during clubroot disease. Therefore, NIT and myrosinase levels during club development and possible regulation mechanisms were investigated. In addition, the occurrence of different nitrilase isoforms in Chinese cabbage has been shown. Nitrilase activity was enhanced in infected roots during later stages of club development (35–42 days after inoculation). However, no differences in nitrilase mRNA levels between infected and healthy roots were found during symptom development. Myrosinase expression was increased in clubbed roots at slightly earlier time points (28 days after inoculation) and also at later time points during infection. The activities of tryptophan oxidizing enzyme (TrpOxE), which catalyzes the first step in tryptophan-dependent auxin biosynthesis in Brassicaceae, and nitrilase were enhanced after treatment with jasmonic acid (JA) and methyl jasmonate. Similarly, the amount of myrosinase mRNA was increased by JA. During clubroot disease the endogenous concentration of JA increased in infected roots 3–5 weeks after inoculation. From our results it can be concluded that: (1) de novo indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) biosynthesis plays a role for symptom development of clubroot disease in Brassicaceae during later developmental stages; and (2) JA which increased during club development, may be involved in the up-regulation of three enzymes important for IAA synthesis.     

Response of club cells in the skin of the carp Cyprinus carpio to exogenous stressors

The ultrastructure of club cells and neighbouring filament cells and leucocytes in the epidermis of carp, was studied under normal conditions and after exposure to several stressors: acid water, heavy metals, organic manure, brackish water and wounding. The effects of the stressors were remarkably similar. The club cells increased in size and contained more endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi areas. In both control and stressed fish, most mitotic figures of the filament cells were found adjacent to club cells, as was demonstrated after colchicine injection. Whereas in the controls apoptosis of filament cells was scarce and limited to the upper layer of the epithelium, in the stressed fish it was commonly seen in close proximity to the club cells but not in other mid-epidermal parts of the epithelium. This indicates that club cells influence the cellular kinetics of the filament cells. Under stress conditions leucocytes infiltrated the epidermis. Some were seen inside club cells. Apparently these leucocytes were taken up in phagosomes and subsequently they showed signs of necrotic degeneration. Leucocyte incorporation and degeneration in club cells were not observed in control fish. Control of the cellular turnover of filament cells and the elimination of leucocytes may represent new functions for club cells, which have mainly been associated with the production of pheromones.     

Communication Efficiency and Congestion of Signal Traffic in Large-Scale Brain Networks

The complex connectivity of the cerebral cortex suggests that inter-regional communication is a primary function. Using computational modeling, we show that anatomical connectivity may be a major determinant for global information flow in brain networks. A macaque brain network was implemented as a communication network in which signal units flowed between grey matter nodes along white matter paths. Compared to degree-matched surrogate networks, information flow on the macaque brain network was characterized by higher loss rates, faster transit times and lower throughput, suggesting that neural connectivity may be optimized for speed rather than fidelity. Much of global communication was mediated by a “rich club” of hub regions: a sub-graph comprised of high-degree nodes that are more densely interconnected with each other than predicted by chance. First, macaque communication patterns most closely resembled those observed for a synthetic rich club network, but were less similar to those seen in a synthetic small world network, suggesting that the former is a more fundamental feature of brain network topology. Second, rich club regions attracted the most signal traffic and likewise, connections between rich club regions carried more traffic than connections between non-rich club regions. Third, a number of rich club regions were significantly under-congested, suggesting that macaque connectivity actively shapes information flow, funneling traffic towards some nodes and away from others. Together, our results indicate a critical role of the rich club of hub nodes in dynamic aspects of global brain communication.     

The club‐shaped gland of amphioxus: export of secretion to the pharynx in pre‐metamorphic larvae and apoptosis during metamorphosis

In amphioxus larvae, the club‐shaped gland is a tube connecting the pharyngeal lumen with the external environment. The functions of the gland and its fate during the larva‐to‐juvenile metamorphosis have long been controversial. Here we use a fixative including ruthenium red to preserve extracellular secretions (presumably glycoproteins) in late pre‐metamorphic larvae. This procedure reveals reddish, fibrogranular material in the lumen of the club‐shaped gland and in the pharynx adjacent to the gland's inner opening. This finding strengthens the idea that secretions of the club‐shaped gland are exported to the pharyngeal lumen to help form a mucous trap for capturing food particles entering the mouth. We also use the terminal desoxynucleotidyl transferase‐mediated dUTP nick end labelling (TUNEL) assay to study apoptosis in the tissues of metamorphosing larvae. One of the earliest events of metamorphosis is the massive apoptotic destruction of the club‐shaped gland. Therefore, despite some previous opinions to the contrary, the cells of the gland do not survive to participate in the genesis of the definitive endostyle or any other post‐larval structures.     

Rich Club Organization of Macaque Cerebral Cortex and Its Role in Network Communication

Graph-theoretical analysis of brain connectivity data has revealed significant features of brain network organization across a range of species. Consistently, large-scale anatomical networks exhibit highly nonrandom attributes including an efficient small world modular architecture, with distinct network communities that are interlinked by hub regions. The functional importance of hubs motivates a closer examination of their mutual interconnections, specifically to examine the hypothesis that hub regions are more densely linked than expected based on their degree alone, i.e. forming a central rich club. Extending recent findings of rich club topology in the cat and human brain, this report presents evidence for the existence of rich club organization in the cerebral cortex of a non-human primate, the macaque monkey, based on a connectivity data set representing a collation of numerous tract tracing studies. Rich club regions comprise portions of prefrontal, parietal, temporal and insular cortex and are widely distributed across network communities. An analysis of network motifs reveals that rich club regions tend to form star-like configurations, indicative of their central embedding within sets of nodes. In addition, rich club nodes and edges participate in a large number of short paths across the network, and thus contribute disproportionately to global communication. As rich club regions tend to attract and disperse communication paths, many of the paths follow a characteristic pattern of first increasing and then decreasing node degree. Finally, the existence of non-reciprocal projections imposes a net directional flow of paths into and out of the rich club, with some regions preferentially attracting and others dispersing signals. Overall, the demonstration of rich club organization in a non-human primate contributes to our understanding of the network principles underlying neural connectivity in the mammalian brain, and further supports the hypothesis that rich club regions and connections have a central role in global brain communication.     

Epidermal club cells do not protect fathead minnows against trematode cercariae: a test of the anti‐parasite hypothesis

Epidermal club cells of fishes in the superorder ostariophysi have puzzled evolutionary biologists because they were historically linked to chemical alarm signalling and relied on group selectionist explanations. Alternative hypotheses to explain the existence of these cells include the possibility of an anti‐pathogenic or anti‐parasitic function. If this is so, individual fish should invest in increased numbers of club cells after exposure to parasites, and club cells should contain components that reduce the infectivity of skin‐penetrating larvae. Infectivity of cercariae of the trematode Ornithodiplostomum sp. was significantly reduced when exposed to the skin extract of fathead minnows (an ostariophysan), but also to skin extract of mollies (a non‐ostariophysan that lacks club cells), respectively, compared to controls. Moreover, club cell density was not affected by exposure to cercariae. Taken together, these results are inconsistent with an anti‐parasite function for these cells and instead suggest a generic role in response to injury. © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 98 , 884–890.     

Diurnal Activity Pattern of Golden Jackal (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Canis aureus</Emphasis> Linn.) in an Urban Landscape of Kolkata,India

The Golden jackal is known to have a wide distribution range and has been put under “Least Concern” category in the IUCN (ver 3.1) Red Data Book. However, the species once quite common along with the Bengal Fox in the eighteenth and nineteenth century of Kolkata has faced serious challenge due to land use and land cover changes in their urban habitats. As such, the Golden jackal has become “locally endangered” in the city of Kolkata, India. Kolkata, one of the largest cities in India, with population density of 14,112,536 is one such example where the land use change is profound. The Tollygunge Club, Kolkata is a social club with restricted entry at the heart of the city of Kolkata and harbours a healthy breeding population of the Golden jackal (Canis aureus Linn.). The present study focuses on the adaptability of the jackals to human proximity and its capacity to switch to natural food (fruits and leaves of available plants in the club, molluscs etc.) present in the club when the club refuse is not available. Their diurnal activity has been studied. These animals show diurnal activity in the open terrains of the club as they are least threatened by the humans. Only few intraspecific and interspecific (with the stray dogs in the club premises) conflicts have been noticed. In is interesting to note that at the heart of a city, in an urban area, such social clubs with restricted entry can provide suitable habitat to sustain a healthy breeding populations of the animals which are showing constant decline in their population due to change in land use pattern.