Filarids (Spirurida: Onchocercidae) in wild carnivores and domestic dogs from the Brazilian Atlantic forest

Onchocercidae nematodes are heteroxenous parasites with worldwide distribution, and some of the species associated to animals may present zoonotic potential. Climatic changes and anthropic influences on the environment may result in vectors’ proliferation, facilitating the spillover to humans and/or non-typical animal hosts. The Iguaçu National Park (PARNA Iguaçu), one of the most important Brazilian natural remanescents of Atlantic rainforest, is strongly affected by human activities such as tourism and agriculture. The complexity of this area is especially characterized by the close nexus between the rich wildlife, humans, and domestic animals, especially domestic dogs. Based on this, this research aimed to diagnose the Onchocercidae nematodes in wild carnivores and domestic dogs in the PARNA Iguaçu and the surrounding areas. For this, we collected 162 samples of seven species of wild carnivores and 225 samples of domestic dogs. The presence of microfilariae in the blood samples was diagnosed by the modified Knott’s test and molecular screening, and the specific identification was based on sequencing of the myoHC and hsp70 genes. Microfilariae were detected only in ring-tailed coatis, in which we found five species: Mansonella sp. 1, Mansonela sp. 2, Onchocercidade gen. sp. 1, Onchocercidade gen. sp. 2, and Dirofilaria immitis. The morphological analysis supported the molecular findings. The domestic dogs were parasitized by Acanthocheilonema reconditum, representing a new locality record for this species. Phylogenetic analysis showed high genetic similarity among the four undetermined species and Mansonella spp., Brugia spp., and Wuchereria bancrofti. The presence of D. immitis in ring-tailed coatis may be result of spillover from dogs, even though the parasite was not diagnosed in the sampled dogs. The presence of several undetermined Onchocercidae species indicates the necessity of continuous investigations on wild and domestic animals from Neotropical area, especially considering the growing anthropic influence on forest remnants.     

Mycoplasmosis in wildlife: a review

Mycoplasma, the smallest self-replicating life-forms, are responsible for a variety of diseases in humans, domestic animals, insects, and plants. Although the exact role of these organisms in wildlife is not available, now it is increasingly recognized that mycoplasmosis is an emerging disease in many wildlife populations. As only scattered data regarding these are available, an attempt has been made to assemble the available literature. To our knowledge, this is the first review paper regarding mycoplasmosis in wildlife. The outbreaks of mycoplasmoses such as contagious pleuropneumonia (CCPP), infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC), Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae and Mycoplasma capricolum subspp. capricolum infections, and contagious agalactia in wild ruminants; mycoplasmosis in raccoons; upper respiratory tract disease (URTD) and Mycoplasma crocodyli and Mycoplasma alligatoris infections in wild reptiles; and house finch conjunctivitis are showing that the prevalence of mycoplasmosis in wildlife has reached an alarming level, thus raising concerns for the conservation of many endangered species in captivity and free-ranging populations. These also emphasize the urgent need for increased surveillance and control of mycoplasma in wildlife. Some control approaches that can be followed are prevention of the spillover from domestic livestock and birds, proper quarantine of newly received animals along with mycoplasma screening, isolation of affected and suspected animals, screening of mycoplasmoses before the release of captive animals into free-ranging population, etc. At the same time, the previous dogma that mycoplasma have strict host specificity should be reconsidered in the light of new findings.     

Global spread of helminth parasites at the human–domestic animal–wildlife interface

Changes in species distributions open novel parasite transmission routes at the human–wildlife interface, yet the strength of biotic and biogeographical factors that prevent or facilitate parasite host shifting are not well understood. We investigated global patterns of helminth parasite (Nematoda, Cestoda, Trematoda) sharing between mammalian wildlife species and domestic mammal hosts (including humans) using >24,000 unique country‐level records of host–parasite associations. We used hierarchical modelling and species trait data to determine possible drivers of the level of parasite sharing between wildlife species and either humans or domestic animal hosts. We found the diet of wildlife species to be a strong predictor of levels of helminth parasite sharing with humans and domestic animals, followed by a moderate effect of zoogeographical region and minor effects of species’ habitat and climatic niches. Combining model predictions with the distribution and ecological profile data of wildlife species, we projected global risk maps that uncovered strikingly similar patterns of wildlife parasite sharing across geographical areas for the different domestic host species (including humans). These similarities are largely explained by the fact that widespread parasites are commonly recorded infecting several domestic species. If the dietary profile and position in the trophic chain of a wildlife species largely drives its level of helminth parasite sharing with humans/domestic animals, future range shifts of host species that result in novel trophic interactions may likely increase parasite host shifting and have important ramifications for human and animal health.     

Prevalence,Environmental Loading,and Molecular Characterization of Cryptosporidium and Giardia Isolates from Domestic and Wild Animals along the Central California Coast

The risk of disease transmission from waterborne protozoa is often dependent on the origin (e.g., domestic animals versus wildlife), overall parasite load in contaminated waterways, and parasite genotype, with infections being linked to runoff or direct deposition of domestic animal and wildlife feces. Fecal samples collected from domestic animals and wildlife along the central California coast were screened to (i) compare the prevalence and associated risk factors for fecal shedding of Cryptosporidium and Giardia species parasites, (ii) evaluate the relative importance of animal host groups that contribute to pathogen loading in coastal ecosystems, and (iii) characterize zoonotic and host-specific genotypes. Overall, 6% of fecal samples tested during 2007 to 2010 were positive for Cryptosporidium oocysts and 15% were positive for Giardia cysts. Animal host group and age class were significantly associated with detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia parasites in animal feces. Fecal loading analysis revealed that infected beef cattle potentially contribute the greatest parasite load relative to other host groups, followed by wild canids. Beef cattle, however, shed host-specific, minimally zoonotic Cryptosporidium and Giardia duodenalis genotypes, whereas wild canids shed potentially zoonotic genotypes, including G. duodenalis assemblages A and B. Given that the parasite genotypes detected in cattle were not zoonotic, the public health risk posed by protozoan parasite shedding in cattle feces may be lower than that posed by other animals, such as wild canids, that routinely shed zoonotic genotypes.     

No evidence for transmission of antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli strains from humans to wild western lowland gorillas in Lopé National Park, Gabon

The intensification of human activities within the habitats of wild animals is increasing the risk of interspecies disease transmission. This risk is particularly important for great apes, given their close phylogenetic relationship with humans. Areas of high human density or intense research and ecotourism activities expose apes to a high risk of disease spillover from humans. Is this risk lower in areas of low human density? We determined the prevalence of Escherichia coli antibiotic-resistant isolates in a population of the critically endangered western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and other wild mammals in Lopé National Park (LNP), Gabon, and we tested whether the observed pattern could be explained by bacterial transmission from humans and domestic animals into wildlife populations. Our results show a high prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial isolates in humans and low levels in gorillas and other wildlife. The significant differences in the genetic background of the resistant bacteria isolated from humans and gorillas suggest that transmission is low or does not occur between these two species. These findings indicate that the presence of antibiotic-resistant strains in wildlife do not imply direct bacteria transmission from humans. Thus, in areas of low human density, human-wildlife E. coli transmission seems to be low. The presence of antibiotic-resistant isolates in gorillas may be better explained by other mechanisms for resistance acquisition, such as horizontal gene exchange among bacteria or naturally acquired resistance.     

Epidemiology and Molecular Characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in Humans,Wild Primates,and Domesticated Animals in the Greater Gombe Ecosystem,Tanzania

Cryptosporidium is an important zoonotic parasite globally. Few studies have examined the ecology and epidemiology of this pathogen in rural tropical systems characterized by high rates of overlap among humans, domesticated animals, and wildlife. We investigated risk factors for Cryptosporidium infection and assessed cross-species transmission potential among people, non-human primates, and domestic animals in the Gombe Ecosystem, Kigoma District, Tanzania. A cross-sectional survey was designed to determine the occurrence and risk factors for Cryptosporidium infection in humans, domestic animals and wildlife living in and around Gombe National Park. Diagnostic PCR revealed Cryptosporidium infection rates of 4.3% in humans, 16.0% in non-human primates, and 9.6% in livestock. Local streams sampled were negative. DNA sequencing uncovered a complex epidemiology for Cryptosporidium in this system, with humans, baboons and a subset of chimpanzees infected with C. hominis subtype IfA12G2; another subset of chimpanzees infected with C. suis; and all positive goats and sheep infected with C. xiaoi. For humans, residence location was associated with increased risk of infection in Mwamgongo village compared to one camp (Kasekela), and there was an increased odds for infection when living in a household with another positive person. Fecal consistency and other gastrointestinal signs did not predict Cryptosporidium infection. Despite a high degree of habitat overlap between village people and livestock, our results suggest that there are distinct Cryptosporidium transmission dynamics for humans and livestock in this system. The dominance of C. hominis subtype IfA12G2 among humans and non-human primates suggest cross-species transmission. Interestingly, a subset of chimpanzees was infected with C. suis. We hypothesize that there is cross-species transmission from bush pigs (Potaochoerus larvatus) to chimpanzees in Gombe forest, since domesticated pigs are regionally absent. Our findings demonstrate a complex nature of Cryptosporidium in sympatric primates, including humans, and stress the need for further studies.     

Zoonotic enteric parasites in Mongolian people,animals, and the environment: Using One Health to address shared pathogens

BackgroundCryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis are important zoonotic enteric pathogens of One Health concern for humans, animals, and the environment. For this study, we investigated parasite prevalence and risk factors among rural, peri-urban, and urban households and environments of Mongolia.MethodsThis cross-sectional study implemented a household risk factor survey at 250 home sites along with sample collection from humans, animals, flies, and drinking water. Multiplex real-time PCR analysis was conducted to look for Cryptosporidium spp. and/or Giardia duodenalis within household samples.ResultsLab analysis found one or both zoonotic parasites at 20% of the participating households (51/250). Human samples had a parasite prevalence of 6.4% (27/419), domestic animals at 3.3% (19/570), pooled filth flies at 14.8% (17/115), and drinking water samples at 2% (5/250). Parasite presence at the household was significantly associated with a household’s use of an improved drinking water source (OR 0.27; CI 0.12–0.61; p = < 0.01), having an indoor handwashing site (OR 0.41; CI 0.19–0.92; p = 0.03), domestic animal ownership (OR 2.40; CI 1.02–5.65; p = 0.05), and rural location (OR 0.50; CI 0.25–0.98; p = 0.04). Household use of an improved drinking water source remained significant in the multivariate model (OR 0.16; CI 0.04–0.68; p = 0.01).ConclusionIn Mongolia, public and veterinary health are intertwined, particularly for rural herding households. Increased access to safe water, sanitation and hygiene infrastructure could help prevent further transmission of zoonotic enteric parasites. Public health interventions, policy and messaging should utilize a One Health framework employing joint leadership from local human and animal health sectors.     

Brucella melitensis in France: Persistence in Wildlife and Probable Spillover from Alpine Ibex to Domestic Animals

Bovine brucellosis is a major zoonosis, mainly caused by Brucella abortus, more rarely by Brucella melitensis. France has been bovine brucellosis officially-free since 2005 with no cases reported in domestic/wild ruminants since 2003. In 2012, bovine and autochthonous human cases due to B. melitensis biovar 3 (Bmel3) occurred in the French Alps. Epidemiological investigations implemented in wild and domestic ruminants evidenced a high seroprevalence (>45%) in Alpine ibex (Capra ibex); no cases were disclosed in other domestic or wild ruminants, except for one isolated case in a chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra). These results raised the question of a possible persistence/emergence of Brucella in wildlife. The purpose of this study was to assess genetic relationships among the Bmel3 strains historically isolated in humans, domestic and wild ruminants in Southeastern France, over two decades, by the MLVA-panel2B assay, and to propose a possible explanation for the origin of the recent bovine and human infections. Indeed, this genotyping strategy proved to be efficient for this microepidemiological investigation using an interpretation cut-off established for a fine-scale setting. The isolates, from the 2012 domestic/human outbreak harbored an identical genotype, confirming a recent and direct contamination from cattle to human. Interestingly, they clustered not only with isolates from wildlife in 2012, but also with local historical domestic isolates, in particular with the 1999 last bovine case in the same massif. Altogether, our results suggest that the recent bovine outbreak could have originated from the Alpine ibex population. This is the first report of a B. melitensis spillover from wildlife to domestic ruminants and the sustainability of the infection in Alpine ibex. However, this wild population, reintroduced in the 1970s in an almost closed massif, might be considered as a semi-domestic free-ranging herd. Anthropogenic factors could therefore account with the high observed intra-species prevalence.     

Attraction of mosquitoes to primate odours and implications for zoonotic Plasmodium transmission

Vector-borne diseases often originate from wildlife and can spill over into the human population. One of the most important determinants of vector-borne disease transmission is the host preference of mosquitoes. Mosquitoes with a specialised host preference are guided by body odours to find their hosts in addition to carbon dioxide. Little is known about the role of mosquito host preference in the spillover of pathogenic agents from humans towards animals and vice versa. In the Republic of Congo, the attraction of mosquitoes to primate host odours was determined, as well as their possible role as malaria vectors, using odour-baited traps mimicking the potential hosts of mosquitoes. Most of the mosquito species caught showed a generalistic host preference. Anopheles obscurus was the most abundant Anopheles mosquito, with a generalistic host preference observed from the olfactory response and the detection of various Plasmodium parasites. Interestingly, Culex decens showed a much higher attraction towards chimpanzee odours than to human or cow odours. Human Plasmodium parasites were observed in both human and chimpanzee blood, although not in the Anopheles mosquitoes that were collected. Understanding the role of mosquito host preference for cross-species parasite transmission provides information that will help to determine the risk of spillover of vector-borne diseases.     

Using Molecular Epidemiology to Track Toxoplasma gondii from Terrestrial Carnivores to Marine Hosts: Implications for Public Health and Conservation

Background

Environmental transmission of the zoonotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii, which is shed only by felids, poses risks to human and animal health in temperate and tropical ecosystems. Atypical T. gondii genotypes have been linked to severe disease in people and the threatened population of California sea otters. To investigate land-to-sea parasite transmission, we screened 373 carnivores (feral domestic cats, mountain lions, bobcats, foxes, and coyotes) for T. gondii infection and examined the distribution of genotypes in 85 infected animals sampled near the sea otter range.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Nested PCR-RFLP analyses and direct DNA sequencing at six independent polymorphic genetic loci (B1, SAG1, SAG3, GRA6, L358, and Apico) were used to characterize T. gondii strains in infected animals. Strains consistent with Type X, a novel genotype previously identified in over 70% of infected sea otters and four terrestrial wild carnivores along the California coast, were detected in all sampled species, including domestic cats. However, odds of Type X infection were 14 times higher (95% CI: 1.3–148.6) for wild felids than feral domestic cats. Type X infection was also linked to undeveloped lands (OR = 22, 95% CI: 2.3–250.7). A spatial cluster of terrestrial Type II infection (P = 0.04) was identified in developed lands bordering an area of increased risk for sea otter Type II infection. Two spatial clusters of animals infected with strains consistent with Type X (P≤0.01) were detected in less developed landscapes.

Conclusions

Differences in T. gondii genotype prevalence among domestic and wild felids, as well as the spatial distribution of genotypes, suggest co-existing domestic and wild T. gondii transmission cycles that likely overlap at the interface of developed and undeveloped lands. Anthropogenic development driving contact between these cycles may increase atypical T. gondii genotypes in domestic cats and facilitate transmission of potentially more pathogenic genotypes to humans, domestic animals, and wildlife.     

Within-host dynamics of Trichinella spiralis predict persistent parasite transmission in rat populations

Trichinella spiralis is transmitted and maintained in both a domestic and sylvatic cycle, whereby rats contribute to the spread of T. spiralis from domestic to sylvatic animals and vice versa. As a model for T. spiralis transmission in wildlife, we studied the potential of rats to act as a reservoir species for T. spiralis, by assessing experimentally its within-host infection dynamics, and simulating the between-host dynamics by a Monte Carlo approach. The distribution of parasite burden in individual rats is mathematically defined by roots of the dose response equation intersecting with the diagonal. In simulated between-host dynamics, up to 10⁴ events of uninterrupted parasite transmission were observed. Histograms of parasite burdens per individual rat matched closely with the mixture of two gamma distributions, which were derived from the within-host infection dynamics. In conclusion, T. spiralis transmission persists in a population of rats when they cannibalize their own species. Rats should be included in the minimal set of wildlife species that maintain the life cycle of T. spiralis.     

Biology of Cryptosporidium from marsupial hosts

The majority of biological data on Cryptosporidium has been collected from humans and domestic animal hosts which creates a bias in knowledge on the biodiversity and evolution of this parasite genus. Further to understanding Cryptosporidium biology are studies encompassing broad hosts that represent diverse taxa sampled across wide geographic ranges. Marsupials represent a group of wildlife hosts from which limited information on Cryptosporidium is available. As marsupial hosts are an ancient mammalian lineage they represent an important group for studying parasite evolution. This review summarises information of the biology, epidemiology and evolution of Cryptosporidium in marsupial hosts, and discusses the importance of further understanding interactions in this parasite-host system.     

Low Rates of Antimicrobial-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae in Wildlife in Ta? National Park,C?te d’Ivoire,Surrounded by Villages with High Prevalence of Multiresistant ESBL-Producing Escherichia coli in People and Domestic Animals

Antimicrobial resistance genes can be found in all ecosystems, including those where antibiotic selective pressure has never been exerted. We investigated resistance genes in a collection of faecal samples of wildlife (non-human primates, mice), people and domestic animals (dogs, cats) in Côte d’Ivoire; in the chimpanzee research area of Taï National Park (TNP) and adjacent villages. Single bacteria isolates were collected from antibiotic-containing agar plates and subjected to molecular analysis to detect Enterobacteriaceae isolates with plasmid-mediated genes of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) and plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance (PMQR). While the prevalence of ESBL-producing E. coli in the villages was 27% in people (n = 77) and 32% in dogs (n = 38), no ESBL-producer was found in wildlife of TNP (n = 75). PMQR genes, mainly represented by qnrS1, were also present in human- and dog-originating isolates from the villages (36% and 42% in people and dogs, respectively), but no qnrS has been found in the park. In TNP, different variants of qnrB were detected in Citrobacter freundii isolates originating non-human primates and mice. In conclusion, ESBL and PMQR genes frequently found in humans and domestic animals in the villages were rather exceptional in wildlife living in the protected area. Although people enter the park, the strict biosecurity levels they are obliged to follow probably impede transmission of bacteria between them and wildlife.     

Identification of Multiple Novel Viruses,Including a Parvovirus and a Hepevirus,in Feces of Red Foxes

Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are the most widespread members of the order of Carnivora. Since they often live in (peri)urban areas, they are a potential reservoir of viruses that transmit from wildlife to humans or domestic animals. Here we evaluated the fecal viral microbiome of 13 red foxes by random PCR in combination with next-generation sequencing. Various novel viruses, including a parvovirus, bocavirus, adeno-associated virus, hepevirus, astroviruses, and picobirnaviruses, were identified.     

A partition of Toxoplasma gondii genotypes across spatial gradients and among host species,and decreased parasite diversity towards areas of human settlement in North America

Toxoplasma gondii counts among the most consequential food-borne parasites, and although the parasite occurs in a wide range of wild and domesticated animals, farms may constitute a specific and important locus of transmission. If so, parasites in animals that inhabit agricultural habitats might be suspected of harbouring genetically distinct parasite types. To better understand habitat effects pertinent to this parasite’s transmission, we compiled and analysed existing genotypic data of 623 samples from animals across a proximity gradient from areas of human settlement to the wilderness in North America. To facilitate such analysis, T. gondii isolates were divided into three groups: (i) from farm-bound animals (with the most limited home ranges on farms); (ii) from free-roaming animals (with wider home ranges on or near farms); and (iii) from wildlife. In addition, parasite genotype distribution in different animal species was analysed. We observed no absolute limitation of any of five major genotypes to any one habitat; however, the frequency of four genotypes decreased across the gradient from the farm-bound group, to the free-roaming group, then the wildlife, whereas a fifth genotype increased along that gradient. Genetic diversity was greater in free-roaming than in farm-bound animals. The genotypic composition of parasites in wildlife differed from those in farm-bound and free-roaming animals. Furthermore, parasite genotypes differed among host species. We conclude that T. gondii genotype distributions are influenced by the spatial habitat and host species composition, and parasite diversity decreases towards areas of human settlement, elucidating facts which may influence transmission dynamics and zoonotic potential in this ubiquitous but regionally variable parasite.     

Evidence for a genetic basis of urogenital carcinoma in the wild California sea lion

Although neoplasia is a major cause of mortality in humans and domestic animals, it has rarely been described in wildlife species. One of the few examples is a highly prevalent urogenital carcinoma in California sea lions (CSLs). Although the aetiology of this carcinoma is clearly multifactorial, inbreeding depression, as estimated using levels of microsatellite multilocus heterozygosity, is identified as predictive for this neoplasia. On further analysis, this relationship appears to be largely driven by one marker, suggesting that a single locus might be associated with the occurrence of this disease in CSLs. In a case–control study, carcinoma was significantly associated with homozygosity at the Pv11 microsatellite locus. Pv11 was mapped to intron 9 of the heparanase 2 gene (HPSE2) locus, a very large gene encoding heparanase 2, which in humans is associated with multiple carcinomas. Correspondingly, immunohistochemical labelling in tissues was present in carcinoma cases within a single homozygous Pv11 genotype. To our knowledge, this is the first report of an individual locus being associated with cancer in any wildlife species. This adds emphasis to the study of HPSE2 in other species, including humans and will guide future studies on this sentinel species that shares much of its diet and environment with humans     

Concentrations of Pathogens and Indicators in Animal Feces in the Sydney Watershed

A fecal analysis survey was undertaken to quantify animal inputs of pathogenic and indicator microorganisms in the temperate watersheds of Sydney, Australia. The feces from a range of domestic animals and wildlife were analyzed for the indicator bacteria fecal coliforms and Clostridium perfringens spores, the pathogenic protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia, and the enteric viruses adenovirus, enterovirus, and reovirus. Pathogen and fecal indicator concentrations were generally higher in domestic animal feces than in wildlife feces. Future studies to quantify potential pathogen risks in drinking-water watersheds should thus focus on quantifying pathogen loads from domestic animals and livestock rather than wildlife.     

Introduced species: domestic mammals are more significant transmitters of parasites to native mammals than are feral mammals

The study of parasitism related to biological invasion has focused on attributes and impacts of parasites as invaders and the impact of introduced hosts on endemic parasitism. Thus, there is currently no study of the attributes of hosts which influence the invasiveness of parasites. We aimed to determine whether the degree of domestication of introduced mammalian species – feral introduced mammals, livestock or pets, hereafter ‘D’ – is important in the spillover of introduced parasites. The literature on introduced parasites of mammals in Chile was reviewed. We designed an index for estimating the relevance of the introduced host species to parasite spillover and determined whether the D of introduced mammals predicted this index. A total of 223 introduced parasite species were found. Our results indicate that domestic mammals have a higher number of introduced parasites and spillover parasites, and the index indicates that these mammals, particularly pets, are more relevant introducers than introduced feral mammals. Further analyses indicated that the higher impact is due to higher parasite richness, a longer time since introduction and wider dispersal, as well as how these mammals are maintained. The greater relevance of domestic mammals is important given that they are basically the same species distributed worldwide and can become the main transmitters of parasites to native mammals elsewhere. This finding also underlines the feasibility of management in order to reduce the transmission of parasites to native fauna through anti-parasitic treatment of domestic mammals, animal-ownership education and the prevention of importing new parasite species.     

A mixed-methods approach to understanding domestic dog health and disease transmission risk in an indigenous reserve in Guyana,South America

Domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) can transmit a variety of pathogens due to their ubiquitousness in urban, rural and natural environments, and their close interactions with wildlife and humans. In this study, we used a mixed-methods approach to assess the role of domestic dogs as potential intermediaries of disease transmission from wildlife to humans among indigenous Waiwai in the Konashen Community Owned Conservation Area, Guyana. To address these objectives we 1) performed physical examinations and collected biological samples to assess Waiwai domestic dog health, and 2) administered questionnaires to characterize the role of dogs in the community and identify potential transmission pathways between wildlife, dogs, and humans. We observed ectoparasites on all dogs (n = 20), including: fleas (100%), ticks (15%), botflies (30%), and jigger flea lesions (Tunga penetrans) (80%). Ten percent of dogs were seropositive for Ehrlichia canis/ewingii, 10% were positive for Dirofilaria immitis, and one dog was seropositive for Leishmania infantum. All dogs (n = 20) were seronegative for: canine distemper virus, Brucella canis, Leptospira serovars, Trypanosoma cruzi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum/platys and Borrelia burgdorferi. Our questionnaire data revealed that the Waiwai remove ectoparasites from their dogs, clean up dog feces, and administer traditional and/or Western medicine to their dogs. White blood cell, strongyle-type ova, and eosinophil counts were lower in dogs that were not frequently used for hunting, dogs that did receive traditional and/or western medicine, and dogs that were frequently kept in elevated dog houses, although differences were not statistically significant. While our results suggest that the Waiwai have developed cultural practices that may promote dog health and/or prevent zoonotic disease transmission, more research is necessary to determine the efficacy of these practices. Our study provides important data on the health of dogs and the potential for disease transmission to humans in a zoonotic hotspot.     

Attempted Detection of Toxoplasma gondii Oocysts in Environmental Waters Using a Simple Approach to Evaluate the Potential for Waterborne Transmission in the Galápagos Islands,Ecuador

Toxoplasmosis is a health concern for wildlife and humans, particularly in island ecosystems. In the Galápagos Islands, exposure to Toxoplasma gondii has been found in marine avifauna on islands with and without domestic cats. To evaluate potential waterborne transmission of T. gondii, we attempted to use filtration and epifluorescent microscopy to detect autofluorescent T. gondii oocysts in fresh and estuarine surface water samples. T. gondii oocyst-like structures were microscopically visualized but were not confirmed by polymerase chain reaction and sequence analyses. Further research is needed to refine environmental pathogen screening techniques and to evaluate disease risk of waterborne zoonoses such as T. gondii for wildlife and humans, particularly in the Galápagos and other naive island ecosystems.