Patterns in the phytochemistry of arctic plants

Ninety-one species of arctic tundra plants were screened for possible chemical defences against herbivory. Tannins were found in one-third of the species, whereas two-thirds of the plants contained alkaloids. Anthraquinones, cyanogenic glycosides and saponins accounted for only 6% of the positive reactions. The results were used to test the apparency hypothesis for the distribution of chemical plant defences which states that rare or unpredictable species should contain qualitative defences (toxins, such as alkaloids) while common or predictable species should contain quantitative defences (digestibility-reducing compounds, such as tannins). Abundance of plant species showed no relationship to chemical content, except that the relatively abundant shrubs more often contained tannins than the relatively rare forbs. Common graminoids (grasses and related taxa) did not contain tannins and data for the other classes of compounds did not support the apparency hypothesis. Graminoids appeared to rely on tolerance to grazing rather than chemical defences and common ericaceous plants produced both digestibility-reducing and toxic compounds.     

Secretory tissues in the East African shrubby aloes

Examination of Aloe leaf sections revealed the presence of three types of cells at the phloem pole of the vascular bundles, aloin cells, outer bundle sheath cells and fibres. Three species contain fibres alone and produce a sparse exudate with few components staining purple with Fast Blue B on thin-layer chromatograms. The majority of species have aloin cells of various sizes and in the tetraploid species these produce a copious exudate containing anthraquinone and chromone derivatives. It is suggested that the aloin cells act as storage tissue and that the compounds are synthesized in the surrounding layer of cells of smaller diameter, many of which can be seen to contain globules of unknown constitution. Anatomical observations support the idea that the shrubby tetraploid Aloe species are derived from a form similar to the diploid Aloe morijensis. Two forms of this species have been described, one with fibres only and few exudate components and another with both fibres and aloin cells and an exudate containing compounds of the tetraploid species. A line of diploid plants similar in anatomy and chemistry to the first form is represented by A. fibrosa and A. babatiensis while a line of tetraploids with affinities to the second form is represented by A. nyeriensis, A. cheranganiensis, A. elgonica, A. dawei and A.yavellana.     

Physiological activities and the active constituents of potentially medicinal plants used by wild chimpanzees of the Mahale mountains,Tanzania

Potential medicinal plants for wild chimpanzees have been studied in order to discover their physiologically active compounds. Tests of the physiological activity of 3 plant species—Vernonia amygdalina, Aspilia mossambicensis, andFicus exasperata—indicate that they contain a variety of active compounds. From one species,V. amygdalina, an antitumor agent and 2 possible antitumor promoters are identified. Furthermore, steroid glucosides were isolated as the bitter substances. These structurally new compounds are expected to exhibit a number of significant physiological activities. The chemical investigation of possible medicinal plants used by chimpanzees should be helpful in recovering naturally occurring compounds of medicinal significance for human use.     

Hemlock alkaloids from Socrates to poison aloes

Hemlock (Conium maculatum L. Umbelliferae) has long been known as a poisonous plant. Toxicity is due to a group of piperidine alkaloids of which the representative members are coniine and gamma-coniceine. The latter is the more toxic and is the first formed biosynthetically. Its levels in relation to coniine vary widely according to environmental conditions and to provenance of the plants. Surprisingly, these piperidine alkaloids have turned up in quite unrelated species in the monocotyledons as well as the dicotyledons. Aloes, for instance, important medicinal plants, are not regarded as poisonous although some species are very bitter. Nevertheless a small number of mostly local species contain the alkaloids, especially gamma-coniceine and there have been records of human poisoning. The compounds are recognized by their characteristic mousy smell. Both acute and chronic symptoms have been described. The compounds are neurotoxins and death results from respiratory failure, recalling the effects of curare. Chronic non-lethal ingestion by pregnant livestock leads to foetal malformation. Both acute and chronic toxicity are seen with stock in damp meadows and have been recorded as problems especially in North America. The alkaloids derive biosynthetically from acetate units via the polyketide pathway in contrast to other piperidine alkaloids which derive from lysine.     

Paleomedicine and the use of plant secondary compounds in the Paleolithic and Early Neolithic

Reconstructing plant use before domestication is challenging due to a lack of evidence. Yet, on the small number of sites with assemblages, the wide range of different plant species cannot be explained simply in terms of nutrition. Assemblages from the Lower Paleolithic to the Early Neolithic were examined to investigate the relative edible and medicinal properties of the plants. The assemblages contain a mixture of edible species, plants that are both edible and medicinal, and plants with only medicinal properties. The proportion of medicinal plants at all sites is well above the natural average and increases over time. Mechanisms for preventing intestinal parasitic infections are common among animals and together with chimpanzees’ preventative and curative self‐medication practices suggest an evolutionary context for this behavior. A broad‐spectrum approach to plant collection is likely to have been in place throughout the Paleolithic driven, in part, by the need for medicinal compounds.     

北部湾海洋植物及其共附生微生物次级代谢产物研究进展(综述)

海洋植物及其共附生微生物是海洋生物的重要组成部分,能够产生许多结构新颖、活性独特的次级代谢产物,承担多种生理生态功能。北部湾海洋植物物种资源丰富,据统计,海洋植物有3门43种。该文综述了从2002年起北部湾海洋植物及其共附生微生物次级代谢产物的研究进展,从11种红树植物和7种共附生微生物中获得59个新化合物和35个已知活性化合物,从3种海草植物中获得3个新化合物和7个已知活性化合物,从6种海藻植物和1种共附生微生物中获得25个新化合物和8个已知活性化合物,主要涉及结构类型有萜类、生物碱、黄酮类、甾醇,多数具有良好的抗菌、抗氧化、抗肿瘤、抗炎、增强机体免疫力等功效。在此基础上,进一步提出了北部湾海洋植物研究方向及后续的研究建议。该综述为深入研究和开发利用北部湾海洋植物及其共附生微生物提供了参考。     

Is palatability of a root-hemiparasitic plant influenced by its host species?

Palatability of parasitic plants may be influenced by their host species, because the parasites take up nutrients and secondary compounds from the hosts. If parasitic plants acquired the full spectrum of secondary compounds from their host, one would expect a correlation between host and parasite palatability. We examined the palatability of leaves of the root-hemiparasite Melampyrum arvense grown with different host plants and the palatability of these host plants for two generalist herbivores, the caterpillar of Spodoptera littoralis and the slug Arion lusitanicus. We used 19 species of host plants from 11 families that are known to contain a wide spectrum of anti-herbivore compounds. Growth of M. arvense was strongly influenced by the host species. The palatability of the individual host species for the two herbivores differed strongly. Both A. lusitanicus and S. littoralis discriminated also between hemiparasites grown with different host plants. There was no correlation between the palatability of a host species and that of the parasites grown on that host, i.e., hemiparasites grown on palatable host species were not more palatable than those grown on unpalatable hosts. We suggest an interacting pattern of specific effects of chemical anti-herbivore defences and indirect effects of the hosts on herbivores through effects on growth and tissue quality of the parasites.     

Ecological phytochemistry of Cerrado (Brazilian savanna) plants

The Cerrado (the Brazilian savanna) is one of the vegetation formations of great biodiversity in Brazil and it has experienced strong deforestation and fragmentation. The Cerrado must contain at least 12,000 higher plant species. We discuss the ecological relevance of phytochemical studies carried out on plants from the Cerrado, including examples of phytotoxicity, antifungal, insecticidal and antibacterial activities. The results have been classified according to activity and plant family. The most active compounds have been highlighted and other activities are discussed. A large number of complex biochemical interactions occur in this system. However, only a small fraction of the species has been studied from the phytochemical viewpoint to identify the metabolites responsible for these interactions.     

Heritability of a Quantitative and Qualitative Protease Inhibitor Polymorphism in Nicotiana attenuata

Abstract: Many plant species contain chemical defenses that protect them against herbivores. Despite the benefit of these chemical defenses, not all individuals contain high levels of these compounds. In the native tobacco Nicotiana attenuata we found that plants from three natural populations differed considerably in their ability to produce trypsin protease inhibitors (PIs), which are defensive proteins that reduce herbivore damage to plants. Plants from a Utah (U) population produced high levels, whereas plants from Arizona (A) contained no detectable PI levels. Californian (C) plants had intermediate levels. The PI-producing U and C plants thus differ quantitatively from each other, whereas they both differ qualitatively from PI-deficient A plants. Here we analyze how PI production is inherited in N. attenuata with the ultimate goal of better understanding how the quantitative and qualitative differences between the three populations have evolved. Using a series of classical crossing designs, we determined that the ability to produce PIs is inherited as a dominant Mendelian trait. PI-deficient plants contain two non-functional recessive alleles, whereas heterozygous plants or homozygous dominant plants both are able to produce PIs. Similarly, the level of constitutive PIs may be determined by its genotype, either by an interaction between a functional and a non-functional allele in heterozygotes, or by a factor on the PI allele itself in homozygous C plants. Based on these data and on previous studies with A and U plants we postulate that the PI-deficient A plants may have originated from a mutant that lost its ability to produce PIs. The fitness loss due to reduced herbivore resistance may be offset by the fitness gain associated with increased competitive ability, a trade-off which may maintain this mutation in the Arizona population.     

Novel chemistry of invasive exotic plants

Of the many exotic plants that have become naturalized in North America, only a small proportion are pests capable of invading and dominating intact natural communities. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that the most invasive plants are phytochemically unique in their new habitats. A comparison of exotic plant species that are highly invasive in North America with exotics that are widespread, but non-invasive revealed that the invasive plants were more likely to have potent secondary compounds that have not been reported from North American native plants. On average, the compounds found in the invasive plants were reported from fewer species, fewer genera and fewer families than those from non-invasive plants. Many of the unique phytochemicals from invasive plants have been reported to have multiple activities, including antiherbivore, antifungal, antimicrobial and allelopathic (phytotoxic) effects, which may provide the plants with several advantages in their new environments.     

Floral scent of bat-pollinated species: West Africa vs. the New World

Floral scent of seven West African bat-pollinated tree species, belonging to six families, was collected in situ from flowering individuals using headspace adsorption. The seven species shared neither any specific compounds nor any other discernible pattern in their floral scent composition. Most of the identified compounds are common in the floral scent of species pollinated by a variety of animals. Adansonia digitata (Bombacaceae) was the only African species found to have a substantial proportion of sulphur compounds in its floral scent. This feature contrasts with the sampled New World bat-pollinated plants, which frequently contain these compounds. The floral scent of Ceiba pentandra (Bombacaceae), native to both South America and Africa, contained no sulphur substances, contradicting a previous study in the New World that identified the major floral compounds as dimethyl disulphide and dimethyl trisulphide. We suggest that the differences in the floral scent of C. pentandra , including the absence of sulphur compounds in the African variety, result from the different selective regimes exerted by the Pteropotidae bats, in Africa, and Phyllostomidae bats, in the New World, that visit their flowers.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 82 , 161–168.     

Separation procedures for naturally occurring antioxidant phytochemicals

Phytochemicals in fruits, vegetables, spices and traditional herbal medicinal plants have been found to play protective roles against many human chronic diseases including cancer and cardiovascular diseases (CVD). These diseases are associated with oxidative stresses caused by excess free radicals and other reactive oxygen species. Antioxidant phytochemicals exert their effect by neutralizing these highly reactive radicals. Among the tens of thousands of phytochemicals found in our diets or traditional medicines, polyphenols and carotenoids stand out as the two most important groups of natural antioxidants. However, although collectively these phytochemicals are good antioxidants, the roles and effect of individual compounds are often not well known. Hundreds of carotenoids and thousands of polyphenols have been identified so far from various plants. A single plant could contain highly complex profiles of these compounds, which sometimes are labile to heat, air and light, and they may exist at very low concentrations in the plants. This makes the separation and detection of these antioxidant phytochemicals a challenging task. The present review focuses on the antioxidant activity, chemical types, sampling and sample processing procedures, and separation using various chromatographic and electrophoretic techniques. Detection and quantification using ultraviolet-visible-diode array and mass spectrometry will be discussed.     

3-Desoxyanthocyanin and other phenolics in the water fernAzolla

The phenolic compounds ofAzolla imbricata andA. japonica have been examined in the present study. Both species were found to contain luteolinidin 5-glucoside and several phenolic compounds, particularly chlorogenic acid, aesculetin, caffeic acid 3,4-diglucoside and 6-(3′-glucosylcaffeoyl)-aesculetin. In addition, glucose esters ofp-coumaric acid and glucose, 1,6-diester of caffeic and chlorogenic acids were present in a small amount. The acid- and alkali-hydrolyzates ofAzolla plants yielded caffeic acid and aesculetin present at the level of about 0.047% and 0.012% in fresh plants, and a large part of the caffeic acid seems to be present as the ester.     

Orgenic plants: Gene‐manipulated plants compatible with organic farming

Based on recent advances in plant gene technology, I propose to develop a new category of GM plants, orgenic plants, that are compatible with organic farming. These orgenic plants do not contain herbicide resistance genes to avoid herbicide application in agriculture. Furthermore, they either contain genes that are naturally exchanged between species, or are sterile to avoid outcrossing if they received a transgene from a different species. These GM plants are likely to be acceptable to most sceptics of GM plants and facilitate the use of innovative new crops.     

Plants secrete substances that mimic bacterial N-acyl homoserine lactone signal activities and affect population density-dependent behaviors in associated bacteria

In gram-negative bacteria, many important changes in gene expression and behavior are regulated in a population density-dependent fashion by N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) signal molecules. Exudates from pea (Pisum sativum) seedlings were found to contain several separable activities that mimicked AHL signals in well-characterized bacterial reporter strains, stimulating AHL-regulated behaviors in some strains while inhibiting such behaviors in others. The chemical nature of the active mimic compounds is currently unknown, but all extracted differently into organic solvents than common bacterial AHLs. Various species of higher plants in addition to pea were found to secrete AHL mimic activities. The AHL signal-mimic compounds could prove to be important in determining the outcome of interactions between higher plants and a diversity of pathogenic, symbiotic, and saprophytic bacteria.     

Phenotypic plasticity in chemical defence of butterflies allows usage of diverse host plants

Host plant specialization is a major force driving ecological niche partitioning and diversification in insect herbivores. The cyanogenic defences of Passiflora plants keep most herbivores at bay, but not the larvae of Heliconius butterflies, which can both sequester and biosynthesize cyanogenic compounds. Here, we demonstrate that both Heliconius cydno chioneus and H. melpomene rosina have remarkable plasticity in their chemical defences. When feeding on Passiflora species with cyanogenic compounds that they can readily sequester, both species downregulate the biosynthesis of these compounds. By contrast, when fed on Passiflora plants that do not contain cyanogenic glucosides that can be sequestered, both species increase biosynthesis. This biochemical plasticity comes at a fitness cost for the more specialist H. m. rosina, as adult size and weight for this species negatively correlate with biosynthesis levels, but not for the more generalist H. c. chioneus. By contrast, H. m rosina has increased performance when sequestration is possible on its specialized host plant. In summary, phenotypic plasticity in biochemical responses to different host plants offers these butterflies the ability to widen their range of potential hosts within the Passiflora genus, while maintaining their chemical defences.     

Do grasses fight back? The case for antiherbivore defences

In the past, discussion about grass-grazer interactions has tended to centre on whether they represent some sort of mutualism. However, intense grazing pressure is more likely to have selected for the presence of various antiherbivore defences in grasses. Many grasses contain silica, which functions in some cases as a physical defence. Others contain various secondary compounds which have negative effects on both invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores. Much recent evidence suggests that plants with higher levels of these defences deter herbivores more effectively than plants without them.     

The Iron and Manganese Content of Plants present in the Natural Vegetation of the English Lake District

Estimations of iron and manganese have been made on ninety-sixspecies of plants (including fungi, mosses, ferns, and floweringplants) from a wide range of natural habitats. These plantsnormally contain more of both elements than is usual in cropplants grown on cultivated fields, probably owing to the greateracidity and humus content of the natural soils. The amount presentvaries with the individual species, the plant group, and thetype of habitat. While some species and groups tend to takeup iron or manganese selectively, both the absolute amountsand the ratio of the two elements may vary widely without apparentinjury to the plant. In general, these elements accumulate mostin aquatic plants growing on organic and anaerobic muds. Thelowest amounts are found in species characteristic of flushedbrown earths and in plants from drained acid peats. The fruitingbodies of fungi contain little of either element.     

Genetic Engineering of Plants to Enhance Selenium Phytoremediation

Referee: Dr. Dean A. Martens, USDAARS Southwest Watershed, Research Center, 200 E. Allen Road, Tucson, AZ 85719 Phytoremediation is the use of plants to remove, contain, or render harmless environmental pollutants. In recent years, much attention has been focused on the improvement of such technologies for this purpose. In this review, we introduce selenium phytoremediation and describe the attempts made to enhance it through genetic engineering. Initial efforts have taken advantage of the knowledge of the enzymatic pathways for selenium assimilation and volatilization, especially by overexpressing genes of rate-limiting enzymes in plants. Another possible approach is to introduce additional metabolic pathways from selenium hyperaccumulators or organisms other than plants that can help detoxify selenium compounds. In this way the capacity of plants to take up, accumulate, and volatilize compounds can be increased beyond that of any naturally occurring plant species. Here we report on the progress that has been made in overexpressing potentially important enzymes involved in the selenium/sulfur pathways and discuss possible future directions in the enhancement of phytoremediation through genetic engineering.