Production ecology ofBolboschoenus maritimus (L.)Palla (Scirpus maritimus L. s.l.)

Measurements were made, for several seasons, both of the growth rate and biomass production of stands ofBolboschoenus maritimus, the seasonal development of the vertical stand structure together with parallel measurements of microclimatological data including incoming global radiation. Water and bottom soil chemical analyses in relation to the nutrient content in the biomass were compared. The ecological adaptation of the acidophilic subspeciesB. m. ssp.maritimus, growing in south-Bohemian oligotrophic fishpond waters with that of the halophilic ssp.compactus was studied in experimental hydroponic cultures and the results discussed with the findings of other authors from different European habitats. The efficiency of solar energy conversion of incoming radiation was calculated by means of energy content biomass analysis.     

Seasonal changes of polyamines in habitat adaptation of different ecotypes of reed plants

The leaves of four reed ecotypes (Phragmites communis Trinius) growing in the desert regions of northwest China were investigated for levels of polyamines and activity of arginine decarboxylase (ADC; EC 4.1.1.19) during the growing season of 5 months. The polyamines in the leaves of all reed ecotypes consisted of putrescine, spermidine and spermine. The polyamine levels of the leaves were lower in the swamp reed than in the terrestrial reed ecotypes. Leaf polyamine levels decreased in all ecotypes over the course of the season. Compared to the swamp reed, the terrestrial reed ecotypes maintained higher ADC activity and a predominance of spermine, resulting in a lower ratio of putrescine to spermidine and spermine. It seems that the adaptation of reed plants to drought and saline habitats may be correlated with putrescine synthesis via the ADC pathway, and with a successful conversion of putrescine to spermidine and spermine.     

Anatomical and chemical characteristics of foliar vascular bundles in four reed ecotypes adapted to different habitats

We investigated the anatomical and chemical characteristics of the foliar vascular bundles in four ecotypes of common reed (Phragmites communis Trin.) inhabiting the desert region of northwest China: swamp reed (SR), low-salt meadow reed (LSMR), high-salt meadow reed (HSMR), and dune reed (DR). The cell walls of the vascular systems of all four ecotypes exhibited bright autofluorescence. Compared to SR, the three terrestrial ecotypes, LSMR, HSMR and DR, had higher percentages of bundle sheath cell areas, lower percentages of xylem and phloem areas, lower xylem/phloem ratios, and higher frequencies of leaf veins. In addition to differences in the autofluorescence intensity and the morphology of the detached cell walls of the vascular bundle sheath, the three terrestrial ecotypes also exhibited anatomical differences in the outerface tangential walls of the bundle sheath and higher frequencies of pit fields in the walls in comparison to SR. The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) microspectroscopy spectra of the vascular bundle cell walls differed greatly among the tissues of the different ecotypes as well as within different tissues within each ecotype. Histochemical methods revealed that although pectins were present in all bundle tissue cell walls, large amounts of unesterified pectin were present in the phloem cell walls, especially in the salt reed ecotypes LSMR and HSMR, and large quantities of highly methyl-esterified pectin were present in the xylem and sclerenchyma cell walls of the SR and DR ecotypes. Differences were observed in the lignification and suberization of the xylem and sclerenchyma cell walls of the four ecotypes, but the phloem and bundle sheath cell walls were generally similar. These results suggest that the adaptation of common reed, a hydrophytic species, to saline or drought-prone dunes triggers changes in the anatomical and chemical characteristics of the foliar vascular bundle tissues. These alterations, including higher percentages of bundle sheath areas and lower percentages of xylem and phloem areas and their ratios, changes in the chemical compositions and modifications of the cell walls of different vascular bundle tissues, and differences in the deposition of major cell wall components in the walls of different vascular bundle tissues, could contribute to the high resistance of reeds to extreme habitats such as saline and drought-prone dunes.     

Phenotypic and genotypic variation of Phragmites australis: Comparison of populations in two human-made lakes of different age and history

Populations of Phragmites australis (CAV.) TRIN. ex STEUD. were studied in the littoral zones of two man-made lakes located in the Třeboň Basin (South Bohemia, the Czech Republic): (1) Opatovický fishpond, a shallow artificial lake constructed in 1510–1514 by damming a shallow valley and used since for carp production, and (2) Halámky sand pit, a new lake formed by sand extraction in 1970–1994. Phenotypic variability was assessed on the basis of shoot morphological and growth characteristics, measured at the time of seasonal maximum aboveground biomass. Genotypic variability was detected using RAPDs, which demonstrated a high clonal diversity in both habitats. The clonal diversity would be strongly underestimated if it were based only on morphological differences. Higher genotypic variability was found in the fishpond reed, not corresponding with low variability in its phenotype performance. Based on analysis of 160 samples, four patterns of genotypic variation were detected: (1) Some stands were genetically uniform and were therefore considered to be monoclonal in both populations studied. (2) Some stands consisted of several clones at the Halámky sand pit. However, these clones showed more similarity within the particular stands than with clones of adjacent stands. (3) In the Opatovický fishpond population, multiclonal stands consisted of clones with a low degree of similarity. (4) Identical clones were detected in several neighbouring stands separated by gaps in the Opatovický fishpond population. The findings support a model of colonization postulating that populations initiated by seeds are initially genetically diverse and over time become dominated by a few clones as a result of competition and selection. These processes then decrease both genetic and morphological variability.     

Phenotypic and genotypic variation of Phragmites australis: A comparative study of clones originating from two populations of different age

Populations of common reed (Phragmites australis [Cav.] Trin. Ex Steud.) were studied in the littoral zones of two human-made lakes in the Třeboň Basin (South Bohemia, Czech Republic): (1) Opatovický fishpond, a 500-year-old fishpond, and (2) Halámky sand pit, a new lake formed by sand extraction in the 1970–1990s. Clones were identified using the RAPD method within morphologically different stands. The clones were propagated vegetatively and cultivated under comparable conditions in a common garden experiment for one vegetation season. Morphological and growth characteristics of the cultivated plants were recorded and compared with those found in the original reed stands. The younger (30-year old) population was genotypically more diverse than the older (500-year old) population. In addition, the younger population demonstrated correspondence of genotypic and phenotypic variation, while the older did not. The results indicate that the genetically determined morphological features (especially shoot length) are manifested more fully in the phenotype of the plants of the younger (Halámky) population, whereas environmental factors affect the phenotype to a greater extent in the older (Opatovický) population.     

Decomposition processes in soil of a healthy and a declining Phragmites australis stand

Decomposition processes were investigated in the soil of a declining, more eutrophic and a healthy, less eutrophic freshwater reed (Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steudel) stand in the littoral zone of Rožmberk fishpond, Czech Republic. Soil and pore water were sampled five times from April to October 1998. Chemical properties, CO₂ production in oxic and anoxic conditions, CH₄ production, denitrifying enzyme activity (DEA) and bacterial biomass were measured under laboratory conditions in suspensions prepared from homogenised soil samples. The more eutrophic West stand was more anaerobic than the East stand, with lower redox potential, lower pH and with a higher amount of organic acids, mainly acetic and lactic acid. Mean seasonal concentrations of total nitrogen in pore water, nitrogen of amino acids and proteins, and reducing sugars were all higher in the soil at the more eutrophic stand. Higher nutrient status and more reduced conditions at the more eutrophic stand were accompanied by (i) a limitation of aerobic microbial activities (CO₂ production in oxic conditions: 0.35 versus 0.54 μmol CO₂ cm⁻³ h⁻¹); lower DEA (4.0 versus 20.2 nmol N₂O cm⁻³ h⁻¹) and a lower proportion of bacteria that were active in aerobic conditions; (ii) by a prevalence of anaerobic over aerobic microbial processes; (iii) by a higher rate of methanogenesis (15.0 versus 11.5 nmol CH₄ cm⁻³ h⁻¹) and (iv) by an overall lower rate of microbial processes as compared to less eutrophied stand. The shift from aerobic to anaerobic microbial metabolism, and a coinciding restriction of metabolic activities at the more eutrophic stand are indicative of an elevated oxygen stress in the soil, associated with accumulation of metabolites toxic to both the micro-organisms and the reed. Possible links between eutrophication, decomposition processes in the soil and reed decline are discussed.     

Effects of diking on the biological performance of the black mangrove (Avicennia germinans L.) in an Atlantic mangrove forest

The effects of diking on the photosynthetic rate, gross glucose production, biomass, and nutrient levels of the black mangrove Avicennia germinans L., were investigated during the major dry, the major wet and the intermediate season in completely diked mangrove areas, and compared to partially diked and non-diked biotopes. In the major dry and major wet seasons, the photosynthetic rate and gross glucose production were two to five times lower in the completely diked sites compared to the partially diked and non-diked habitats. The average dry weights of branches, flowers and leaves did not differ significantly between sites. The same held true for propagules from the major dry and major wet season. However, propagules from the transition period collected in the non-diked and partially diked biotopes yielded appreciable amounts of dry matter, while plants in the completely diked forests did not carry any propagules. No statistically significant differences were found among nutrient content in the leaves of plants from the different habitats. Our results suggest black mangrove growing in diked habitats may suffer a certain degree of environmental stress, which may affect important biological processes, such as photosynthesis, gross glucose production, and propagule formation.     

Production ecology ofAcorus calamus

Autecological, quantitative studies have been made ofAcorus calamus L., growing in littoral communities of Central Europe and/or cultivated in experimental hydroponic sand cultures. Production measurements using the methods of growth analysis and the leaf disks method of dry weight increase were performed in addition to measurements of biomass energy conversion both of natural communities and experimental plants.—Thermoinduction of growth and ontogenetic development of shoots and underground organs and theR/S ratio were studied experimentally in conditioned greenhouses.—The mineral nutrient uptake was studied in natural populations in fishpond littorals as well as in experimental cultures with forced mineral nutrition.—The provenience and chorology, considering the caryotypes ofA. c. populations in Europe, Asia and North America are discussed in relation to the thermoinduced ontogenetic development of vegetative organs, to flower sterility and to the polycormone performance of European populations growing in temperate to cold climatic conditions.     

Regulation of the structure and catalytic properties of plasma membrane H<Superscript>+</Superscript>-ATPase involved in adaptation of two reed ecotypes to their different habitats

The properties and kinetics of ATP and p-nitrophenyl phosphate (PNPP) hydrolysis activities of plasma membrane H⁺-ATPase from the two reed ecot ypes, swamp reed (SR) and dune reed (DR), were investigated. The pH optimum of the plasma membrane H⁺-ATPase in both reed ecotypes was similar but the sensitivity of the enzyme to the reaction medium pH seemed to be higher in DR than that in SR. Compared to SR, the DR exhibited a higher V_max value for ATP hydrolysis whereas the K_m value was almost similar in both reed ecotypes. The PNPP hydrolysis of the plasma membrane H⁺-ATPase was also studied in both reed ecotypes at increasing PNPP concentrations. K_m and V_max for PNPP hydrolysis showed great differences in the two reed ecotypes and in DR the K_m and V_max values were 2- and 10-fold, respectively, higher than those in SR. The ATP hydrolysis activity of the plasma membrane was markedly inhibited by hydroxylamine in both reed ecotypes, and the percentage inhibition of ATP hydrolysis rate seemed higher in DR than that in SR. In addition, the structure or property of the C-terminal end of the plasma membrane H⁺-ATPase were also different in the two reed ecotypes. These data suggest that different isoforms of the plasma membrane H⁺-ATPase might be developed and involved in the adaptation of the plant to the long-term drought-prone habitat.This research was supported by Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 30270238 & No. 30470274) and the National Key Basic Research Special Funds of China (G1999011705).     

Factors associated with reed decline in a eutrophic fishpond,Rožmberk (South Bohemia,Czech Republic)

Characteristics of the growth and performance ofPhragmites australis as well as sediment characteristics were investigated along the western shore of Ro?mberk fishpond. The reed performance decreased toward the southern end of the shore, proximate to outlets of wastewater effluent and untreated sewage. While the reed stand was closed and looked healthy at the northern end, gaps occurred within the flooded part of the reed belt further southwards; reed was absent in water along the southernmost part of the shore, though dead shoot stubble indicated its presence in earlier times. In the latter site, the surface layer of sediment consisted of fine mud with a high organic matter content and a high oxygen demand. To a smaller extent, patches of partly decomposed reed litter inside the gaps showed the same properties. It is suggested that organic matter accumulating within the flooded part of the reed belt may have reduced plant performance which ultimately lead to the formation of gaps. At a later stage, the lakeside fringe of the reed belt collapsed, thus completing the retreat of reed from water. A protective effect of calcium against the adverse effects of organic matter is suggested.     

不同生境两种生态型芦苇的抗氧化系统

以分布于甘肃临泽平川乡的两种芦苇生态型——水生芦苇(水芦)和重度盐化草甸芦苇(盐芦)叶片为材料,研究了其抗氧化系统的特征。结果表明,与水芦相比,盐芦中未出现活性氧和MDA(丙二醛)的积累,抗氧化酶SOD(超氧化物歧化酶)、CAT(过氧化氢酶)、POD(过氧化物酶)和APX(抗坏血酸过氧化物酶)的活性显著升高。总抗坏血酸和类胡萝卜素含量在两种生态型芦苇中没有差异,但还原型抗坏血酸和总谷胱甘肽含量在盐芦中显著升高。而且,盐芦的LOX(脂氧合酶)活性比水芦低。这些结果表明,盐芦中有效的抗氧化防御系统对抵抗盐渍胁迫起着重要的作用。此外,盐芦中高活性的Ca^2 -和Mg^2 -ATPase对细胞中过多离子的转运以及避免离子毒害起着重要的作用。     

Differential expression of photosynthesis-related genes of reed ecotypes in response to drought and saline habitats

Three ecotypes of reed (Phragmites communis Trinius), swamp reed (SR), dune reed (DR), and heavy salt meadow reed (HSMR), growing in desert regions of northwest China were simultaneously investigated in their natural state for gas exchange patterns and the expression of three photosynthesis-related genes, cab (the gene for the light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b binding protein, LHC), psbA (the gene for the reaction centre D1 protein of photosystem 2, PS2), and 16S rDNA (the gene for plastid 16S rRNA). Stomatal conductance (gs) and intercellular CO2 concentration (ci) were markedly lower in the two terrestrial ecotypes (DR and HSMR) as compared to SR, paralleling a similar observed depression in net photosynthetic rate (PN). However, DR with the lowest measured gs and ci still exhibited a higher PN compared to HSMR. These results suggest that both stomatal and non-stomatal factors account for the comparatively low carbon assimilation in the terrestrial ecotypes. An increase in the expression of photosynthesis-related genes was observed in DR compared to SR, whereas the reverse situation was true in HSMR. The expression of photosynthesis-related genes may contribute to reed plants' photosynthetic capacity per leaf area under natural water deficits, but the levels of photosynthesis-related gene expression are not directly correlated with reed plants' general ability for survival and adaptation under water deficient conditions.     

Morphological and behavioral variation in juvenile roach Rutilus rutilus (Cyprinidae, Cypriniformes) from different biotopes of the Rybinskoe Water Reservoir

Based on the hypothesis proposed by the authors, the separation of roach Rutilus rutilus into the coastal and bottomland-demersal ecological forms occurs at the steps of early juvenile development. The main morphological features used for the identification of these forms at the steps of early ontogeny are the size of the mouth opening and body shape. The fish from the open littoral zone are characterized by a larger mouth opening and slender body in comparison to the fish from the sheltered coastal zone. In the open biotopes, natural selection, most likely, occurs at earlier steps of development than in the sheltered biotopes. The differences in the trophic and hydrodynamic characteristics, as well as in the swimming and defensive capacities, are revealed between the fishes from the biotopes of the two types.     

Differences between ecological niches in juvenileSalix cinerea andS. pentandra

Comparison of growth rates ofSalix cinerea andS. pentandra seedlings in terrestric, limosal, and littoral ecophases showed different life strategies of juvenile stages of these willows. Several characters determining ecological niches of both species are summarized.     

Comparison of Plasma Membrane H^＋-ATPase Activity in Two Ecotypes of Reed （Phragmites communis） Leaves from Different Habitats

Plasma membrane (PM) vesicles of the leaves of two ecotypes of reed (Phragrnites communis Trin.), swamp reed (SR) and heavy salt meadow reed (HSMR) growing in the desert region of Northwest China, were purified by two-phase partitioning and the properties of their PM H^ -ATPases (EC 3.6.1.35) were compared. The specific activity of this enzyme was greater in HSMR than in SR and the Km lower (1.27mmol/L in SR and 0.30mmol/L in HSMR), and the Vmax of ATP hydrolysis activity showed no significant difference between the two ecotypes. The PM H^ -ATPase was more sensitive to denaturing temperatures in HSMR than in SR, and the pH profile also showed a slight difference, suggesting that the catalytic mechanism of this enzyme was different in HSMR compared with that in SR. The p-nitrophenyl phosphate (PNPP) hydrolysis activity of H^ -ATPase was higher in HSMR than in SR at low concentrations of PNPP, but showed no difference at high PNPP concentration. The Km for PNPP hydrolysis was 3.61mmol/L and 1.92mmol/L in SR and HSMR, respectively. And the Vmax of PNPP hydrolysis showed no significant difference in the two reed ecotypes. An experiment with the inhibitor vanadate showed that the catalytic mechanisms of the phosphatase domain of the ATPase were different in the two ecotypes. The data obtained following trypsin treatment showed a difference in the enzyme activity pattern, suggesting that there existed a possible change in the C-terminus of the ATPase, either in the structure or in the property or both of them. In addition, compared with SR, the ATP-dependent H^ pumping activity of ATPase and the coupling between proton transport and ATP hydrolysis in HSMR were increased. These results indicated that the properties of PM H^ -ATPase were changed in HSMR with compared to those in SR, which might include enzyme modifications and different isoforms expressed. The alterations of the properties of this enzyme might be an adaptive response to the habitat.     

Vertical distribution of attached algae in shallow fishponds of different trophic status

Spring and summer vertical distributions of attached algae were studied on artificial substrates (glass cover slips) in shallow fishponds of different trophic status. Differences were found in colonization process between two fishponds, two seasons and between two sites at each fishpond (central part, fishpond shore). Oligotrophic fishpond U třech krátkych can be characterized by better light conditions and lower temperatures. While equal vertical distribution of periphytic algae was observed at oligotrophic site, their relative cover decreased continuously in spring and strongly in summer with the increasing depth at eutrophic site. Oligotrophic fishpond can be characterized by very slow colonization rate and increasing abundance of Chrysophyceae. On the other hand Cyanobacteria were more frequent in eutrophic fishpond where periphyton displayed high colonization rate. Diatom species richness was the highest at oligotrophic site during spring experiments. The sites near the fishpond shore compared to sites in the central part of the fishpond can be characterized by higher rate of colonization, higher periphyton relative cover, lower proportion of Chrysophyceae and higher proportions of diatoms and cyanophytes indicating probably higher trophic level.     

Analyses of Soluble Protein,Total and Free Amino Acids in Leaves of Different Ecotypes of Phragmites communis Growing in the Hexi Corridor

The difference of total and free amino acids and protein extracted from the leaves of four different reed ecotypes growing in Hexi corridor of Gansu Province were investigated. In all of the different reed ecotypes, the content of Asp, Glu, Gly, Leu and Ala in total amino acids were high, while the contents of Ala, Phe, Met and Thr, Pro in total amino acids varied among different reed ecotypes. Albeit Ala, Glu, Asp, Gly and Ser were the chief composition of free amino acids in leaves of all reed ecotypes, but temarkble difference was found in the content of each free amino acid from different reed ecotypes. The content of free Pro in leaves of salt meadow and salt meadow-sand dune transitional zone reed were 3.5 and 1.6 times respectively as much as in leaves of swamp reed. Swamp reed had 11 soluble proteins whereas other three reed ecotypes show that each has 13 soluble proteins. Three “salt adaptation proteins” (66 kD, 40.3 kD, 16.5 kD) were found in leaves of three reed ecotypes with varying degree of salt stress, however, the contents of 3 “salt adaptation protens” showed a negative correlation with the degree of salt stress. There was a large amount of “special protein” (11.7 kD) in leaves of sand dune reeds. These results suggest that the difference in cytogene expression takes a priority basis of adaptation of reed plants to different habitats, while a closer relationship of reeds tolerance to salt or drought stress with Pro accumulation in cells is seen than with the of accumulation stress adaptation protein.     

Contemporary Parallel Diversification,Antipredator Adaptations and Phenotypic Integration in an Aquatic Isopod

It is increasingly being recognized that predation can be a strong diversifying agent promoting ecological divergence. Adaptations against different predatory regimes can emerge over short periods of time and include many different traits. We studied antipredator adaptations in two ecotypes of an isopod (Asellus aquaticus) that have, diverged in parallel in two Swedish lakes over the last two decades. We quantified differences in escape speed, morphology and behavior for isopods from different ecotypes present in these lakes. Isopods from the source habitat (reed) coexist with mainly invertebrate predators. They are more stream-profiled and have higher escape speeds than isopods in the newly colonized stonewort habitat, which has higher density of fish predators. Stonewort isopods also show more cautious behaviors and had higher levels of phenotypic integration between coloration and morphological traits than the reed isopods. Colonization of a novel habitat with a different predation regime has thus strengthened the correlations between pigmentation and morphology and weakened escape performance. The strong signature of parallelism for these phenotypic traits indicates that divergence is likely to be adaptive and is likely to have been driven by differences in predatory regimes. Furthermore, our results indicate that physical performance, behavior and morphology can change rapidly and in concert as new habitats are colonized.     

Leaf anatomy and C4 photosynthetic enzymes in three reed ecotypes

Differences in leaf interveinal distances, chloroplasts distribution in bundle sheath cells (BSC) and activities of C₄ photosynthetic enzymes in the leaves of three ecotypes of Phragmites communis Trinius, namely swamp reed (SR), heavy salt meadow reed (HSMR) and dune reed (DR), occurring in the desert region of northwest China were investigated. The two terrestrial ecotypes, DR and HSMR, had denser vascular system, more and longer BSC chloroplasts and higher capacity of CO₂ concentrating mechanism of NAD-ME subtype as compared with the SR ecotype. The enhanced NADP-ME pathway in the HSMR might contribute to its adaptation to the salinity habitat.     

Top-down and bottom-up impacts of juvenile fish in a littoral reed stand

1. Research has often focused on pelagic food chains and processes of lakes; less is known about the contribution of benthic energy flows to whole‐lake ecosystem energetics. This stems from the fact that the shoreline and littoral habitats, which provide a key linkage between sediment and water column, have only recently become a significant focus for study. 2. This study aimed to quantify the feeding and phosphorus allocation of a juvenile fish community in a littoral zone of a shallow lake in response to the biomass succession of the invertebrate prey community. Habitats comprising reed and adjacent open water were sampled over two consecutive years during day and night. 3. Although there were substantial year‐to‐year differences in the biomass of invertebrates, the fish community composition, diet consumption rates and phosphorus allocations were very similar in both study years. Biomasses and predation impacts by juvenile fish on prey groups were substantially higher within the reeds than in the adjacent open water habitat. This may be explained by the refuge‐seeking behaviour of the fish. 4. In general, invertebrates were negligibly influenced by fish feeding, with the exception for a strong top‐down control of large cladocerans. In response to the resulting low Daphnia biomass, fish were forced to switch to a higher degree of benthivory. Consequently, juvenile fish in littoral reed stands may shift benthic‐derived energy and phosphorus via the excretion of soluble reactive phosphorus into the open water.