Mission impossible or mission accomplished: Do zoo organizational missions influence conservation practices?

Conservation is an important organizational focus for zoos and aquariums. Organizational identity theory predicts a relationship between what is central to organizations, such as their mission statements, and their strategic activities. Based on this theory, we tested how organizational missions relate to their conservation strategies and practices. Tax forms and websites provided data from 173 zoos and 38 aquariums in the Association of Zoos and Aquariums in North America. We analyzed conservation mission strength, organizational characteristics, and project features with dependent variables representing the depth of organizational conservation commitments: amount of grants zoos funded, number of partner organizations, and number of projects per zoo. On tax forms, the average amount of total conservation grants donated to partner organizations per zoo was over $650,000, while the average number of partners reported on the tax forms was two. The content analysis of websites revealed an average of 14 conservation partners and 10 projects per zoo. Negative binomial regression models were significant. The financial analysis revealed that only the number of zoo personnel, as a surrogate for organization size, significantly predicted the amount of zoos’ conservation grants. Website analyses found increasing budgets, organizational involvement, and geographic reach of the projects predicted increasing numbers of conservation projects and partnerships. However, our findings did not support the hypothesized relationship—strength of organizational mission did not predict strategy and activities. Zoos could do more to strategically activate their organizational identities and conservation missions to achieve their conservation goals.     

Factors facilitating research: a survey of zoo and aquarium professionals

The purpose of this survey was to assess the background, training, and perceptions of professionals conducting and coordinating research at North American zoos and aquariums accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) and to identify the factors they considered critical to successful scientific programs. We analyzed responses to a 57‐item questionnaire from 231 professionals at AZA zoos and aquariums. The majority of those surveyed conducted behavioral research, conducted research only in a captive setting, held curatorial positions, had their salaries supported by their institutions' operating budget, and considered themselves part of a successful scientific program. About 30% of those we surveyed possessed a doctoral research degree in comparison to 55% possessing lesser level degrees—19% with master's, 34% with bachelor's, and 2% with other degrees. Support from the chief executive officer and personnel dedicated to conducting scientific programs were judged as the two most important factors contributing to the successful scientific programs. The information provided in this report may be used to develop and improve both established and newly initiated scientific programs in zoos and aquariums. Zoo Biol 29:663–675, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Conservation medicine and One Health in zoos: Scope,obstacles, and unrecognized potential

Zoo veterinarians and allied professionals have been contributing to conservation medicine (CM) and One Health (OH) activities for more than two decades. Although the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) considers conservation a key part of its mission, little published material exists about the extent of AZA work in CM/OH or the challenges and opportunities associated with these endeavors. To better understand the current scope of CM/OH in zoos, we surveyed 53 AZA‐accredited institutions from April through October of 2016. We obtained information on CM/OH infrastructure, support for expansion in this area, and strategies to overcome perceived obstacles hindering CM/OH from becoming a core AZA activity. Survey results revealed that while most zoos favor greater investment in CM/OH programs, awareness, and understanding of CM/OH across the broader zoo community and public is lacking. The majority of respondents stated that overcoming this challenge is paramount to attaining support for CM/OH initiatives. In spite of these obstacles, survey respondents highlighted many positive developments in CM/OH. We found that 84% of zoos surveyed are actively engaged in CM/OH activities, and 12% house formal CM/OH programs. Another 8% of respondents said their institutions were developing CM/OH programs. Perhaps most noteworthy, we found that zoo size did not have a significant bearing on the financial amount allocated toward an institution's CM/OH activities. This suggests that all zoos, regardless of size, can make meaningful contributions to the growing movement of CM/OH and help redefine the role of zoos within this movement.     

Individual-level variability among trust criteria relevant to zoos and aquariums

Prior research into the conceptual underpinnings of the public's institutional trust in zoos and aquariums has suggested a range of ethical dimensions that set these types of cultural institutions apart from others in the museum sector. As the recognized holders, care-takers, and nurturers of wild animals, zoos and aquariums are sustained at least in part by the public's perception that these activities are legitimate pursuits and essential to the long-term conservation of the natural world. This paper builds on recent research that identified the ethical dimensions of trust in zoos and aquariums and assessed their distribution among the U.S. public by analyzing survey responses with respect to the importance of trust criteria. We hypothesized that distinct clusters of individuals, as defined by their response to trust criteria items, would emerge and that these clusters would prioritize different dimensions in their trust of zoos and aquariums. Using k-means clustering, we identified four relevant clusters of individuals on seven dimensions of institutional trust in zoos and aquariums. Based on these clusters, we suggest strategies for addressing what may be necessary for zoos and aquariums to claim authority as agents promoting conservation behaviors in society.     

A survey of research in North American zoos and aquariums

To assess the current status of research in zoos and aquariums, a 36-item survey, which replicated and expanded upon an earlier survey [Finlay and Maple, 1986], was sent to 173 American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) institutions. A response rate of 71% was achieved after a second mailing. The results show that the role of research in AZA institutions has increased in the last decade. The percentage of zoos and aquariums that report conducting research, that list research as an objective of the institution, and that have a research committee/department have all increased. The number of individuals involved in research per institution has approximately doubled since 1986, and slightly less than half of responding institutions currently have a full-time position dedicated to administering research. Lack of available funds, time, and qualified personnel are the most common reasons reported for not conducting research. Zoo Biol 17:167–180, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The global reach of zoos and aquariums in visitor numbers and conservation expenditures

A survey conducted by the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums, in collaboration with national and regional zoo and aquarium associations, showed that annually more than 700 million people visit zoos and aquariums worldwide and are thus potentially exposed to environmental education. Furthermore, the world zoo and aquarium community reportedly spends about US$ 350 million on wildlife conservation each year. Therefore, the world zoo and aquarium community has the potential to play an important role in both environmental education and wildlife conservation. Systematic reviews are encouraged to provide further evidence for the effectiveness of zoos and aquariums as centers of education and conservation.     

The Educational Claims of Zoos: Where Do We Go from Here?

Zoos exude a certain self‐confidence regarding their roles as education providers. Indeed, the education outputs of zoos are, at face value, pretty impressive, with most investing in learning opportunities for leisure visitors, education groups and in some cases, as part of their in situ programs. However, these outputs are not necessarily reliable indicators of the educational achievements of zoos. Quantity does not necessarily equate to quality, just as outputs do not necessarily lead to outcomes. Zoo‐accreditation organizations such as the AZA and EAZA offer us clear insight into the strategic vision underpinning the education goals for zoo visitors; a heightened appreciation of the value of biodiversity and a connectedness with the natural world. Unsurprisingly, most zoos have educational goals that ally neatly with the vision of their respective accreditation body. Consequently, we are left with fairly narrow, top‐down educational goals. This does not necessarily sit well with what we know about the unpredictability of “free choice” learning in environments such as zoos and aquariums, or what is known about public science communication. Research that seeks to explore the impacts of zoo visits often focuses on evaluating performance based on educational goals and the findings are used as a means of providing evidence of institutional achievement. However, any visitor outcome that falls outside of this narrow range could well be missed by the research. In this article, we propose that research that takes unpredictable and unexpected outcomes into account is necessary and overdue. Zoo Biol. 32:13‐18, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Best Practices for Core Facilities: Handling External Customers

This article addresses the growing interest among U.S. scientific organizations and federal funding agencies in strengthening research partnerships between American universities and the private sector. It outlines how core facilities at universities can contribute to this partnership by offering services and access to high-end instrumentation to both nonprofit organizations and commercial organizations. We describe institutional policies (best practices) and procedures (terms and conditions) that are essential for facilitating and enabling such partnerships. In addition, we provide an overview of the relevant federal regulations that apply to external use of academic core facilities and offer a set of guidelines for handling them. We conclude by encouraging directors and managers of core facilities to work with the relevant organizational offices to promote and nurture such partnerships. If handled appropriately, we believe such partnerships can be a win-win situation for both organizations that will support research and bolster the American economy.     

Elephant importation from range countries: ethical and practical considerations for accredited zoos

Zoo elephant populations are in serious demographic peril. Advances in elephant management and care are expected to lead to improved reproductive success. The existing cohort of reproductively viable adult females is aging, however, and effective changes may not come fast enough to sustain the population over time. If so, importation of captive, semi‐domesticated, and wild elephants from range countries may be necessary for zoo programs to survive. Yet, due to the high profile elephants now have with animal rights activists, there may be increasing legal and political barriers to elephant importation. This makes it especially important that zoos become more proactive in addressing remaining weaknesses in elephant management and care and building the case for elephants in zoos. This article summarizes the key considerations for AZA‐accredited zoos that are contemplating future importations. These include ethical, legal, practical, public relations, and other considerations. The authors strongly recommend that zoos position themselves for possible future importations immediately instead of waiting until the last minute. It is equally critical that zoos recognize their existing vulnerabilities and attempt to address them proactively; only then, can they take control of their own fate and reduce the potential for later regret. Zoo Biol 25:219–233, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Psychological and social well-being of bony fishes in zoos and aquariums

Research on the behavior of animals in zoos has been conducted for decades and observations have provided information that has improved the psychological and social well-being of animals. However, research on fishes in zoos and aquariums seems to be lacking. Here we assess the current state of research on fishes in zoos and aquariums by surveying peer-reviewed literature. Our assessment differs from previous surveys in that we examine the taxonomic classes Chondrichthyes (sharks and rays) and Osteichthyes (bony fishes) separately. Our survey finds that bony fishes have been drastically underrepresented in zoo journals, more so than chondrichthyans, revealing an urgent need for zoos and aquariums to conduct research on the behavior of the bony fishes in their care, to ensure a positive state of psychological and social well-being. To plot a course for the future, we discuss the few studies that have been conducted on the behavior of bony fishes in zoos and aquariums, and we discuss research conducted on bony fishes in food-fish aquaculture and biomedicine to identify the types of studies that could be conducted in zoos and aquariums. We conclude that data-driven analyses of fish behavior could aid in development of evidence-based practices that enhance the well-being of bony fishes in zoos and aquariums, just as they already do for terrestrial animals.     

General practice partnerships: till death us do part?

OBJECTIVES--To investigate applications for general practice partnership vacancies by established general practitioner principals, the reasons for changing partnerships, and the disincentives to these moves. DESIGN--Confidential postal questionnaire. SUBJECTS--Applicants to 367 general practices in the United Kingdom advertising for a new full time partner. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES--The proportion of job applications containing at least one application from established principals, proportion of principals appointed as new partners, incentives and disincentives to changing partnership. RESULTS--Of 325 replies (89% response rate) received, 292 were suitable for further analysis. 210/241 (87%) of all applications contained some applications from at least one established principal. 12% of all applications were made by principals. 41/296 (14%) of the newly appointed partners had previously been an established principal. The main reasons for leaving the previous partnership were a desire to move locality or not getting on with previous partners. The disincentives to changing partnerships were largely financial, including the cost of the move and loss of income. CONCLUSIONS--It is possible for established principals in general practice to overcome the disincentives and to change partnerships. There did not seem to be any overall prejudice against appointing principals, in contrast to previously published views.     

Assessing the conservation potential of fish and corals in aquariums globally

Aquatic ecosystems are indispensable for life on earth and yet despite their essential function and service roles, marine and freshwater biomes are facing unprecedented threats from both traditional and emerging anthropogenic stressors. The resultant species and ecosystem-level threat severity requires an urgent response from the conservation community. With their care facilities, veterinary and conservation breeding expertise, reintroduction and restoration, and public communication reach, stand-alone aquariums and zoos holding aquatic taxa have great collective potential to help address the current biodiversity crisis, which is now greater in freshwater than land habitats. However, uncertainty regarding the number of species kept in such facilities hinders assessment of their conservation value. Here we analyzed, standardized and shared data of zoological institution members of Species360, for fish and Anthozoa species (i.e. Actinopterygii, Elasmobranchii, Holocephali, Myxini, Sarcopterygii and Anthozoa). To assess the conservation potential of populations held in these institutions, we cross-referenced the Species360 records with the following conservation schemes: the Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES), the IUCN Red List of Threatened species, climate change vulnerability, Evolutionary Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) and The Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE). We found that aquariums hold four of the six fish species listed by the IUCN Red List as ‘Extinct in the Wild’, 31% of Anthozoa species listed by Foden et al. (2013) as vulnerable to climate change, 19 out of the 111 Anthozoa EDGE species, and none of the species prioritized by the AZE. However, it is very likely that significant additional species of high conservation value are held in aquariums that do not manage their records in standardized, sharable platforms such as Species360. Our study highlights both the great value of aquarium and zoo collections for addressing the aquatic biodiversity crisis, as well as the importance that they maintain comprehensive, standardised, globally-shared taxonomic data.     

Biology of Animal Stress: Implications for Animal Well-Being

What is environmental enrichment? During the last several decades, zoos and aquariums have come to realize (perhaps belatedly) that animals kept in captivity need environmental enrichment for their well-being (Seidensticher &; Forthman, 1998). Early zoos and aquariums tried to show as many animals as possible; hence, their exhibits were frequently small and bare to permit easy viewing, cleaning, and sterilization. Now, all have come to realize that captive animals need environmental enrichment for their health and for the education and increased expectations of visitors to zoos and aquariums.     

A Visit to the Zoos and Aquariums in Japan II

In the year 2013, the authors, who had already visited some Japanese aquariums and zoos in 2012 (Lange & Tai, 2012), revisited several Japanese aquariums and zoos. They were accompanied by two colleagues from Basle Zoo and the Monterey Bay Aquarium, who joined the tour.Their goals of the tour were focused on new innovative husbandry methods, on new aquarium buildings and new zoo enclosures as well as on rare Japanese endemic animals, which are never or seldom seen outside of Japan.The perfect new aquariums in Kyoto and Kitami City (Hokkaido), but also the very specialized aquariums like the Kamo Aquarium (for jellyfish) in Yamagata, the Chitose Salmon Aquarium (for salmons), the Otaru Aquarium (for sea mammals) and the Umi Kirara Kujukushima Aquarium (for the fauna of the Kujukushima island National Park) have been destinations for this trip. Besides the aquariums also the Asahiyama Zoo (new enclosures for endemic animals of Hokkaido), Kobe Oji Zoo, Kushiro Zoo (many endemic Hokkaido species), Nagasaki Bio Park, Sapporo Maruyama Zoo (new area for South East Asian animals) and the Sasebo Zoological & Botanical Garden were visited.During this tour it was obvious that neither the colleagues in Japan nor the staff in the zoos outside of Japan know sufficient enough about the conception and the husbandry methods in the different institutions in this part of the world. Therefore it is recommendable to organize such tours often for more people, thus both sides can benefit and learn from each other. This again will influence to help to keep the animals better, to attract more visitors in order to inspire them for the conservation of nature and environment.     

Enrichment for Giant Pacific Octopuses: Happy as a Clam?

What is environmental enrichment? During the last several decades, zoos and aquariums have come to realize (perhaps belatedly) that animals kept in captivity need environmental enrichment for their well-being (Seidensticher & Forthman, 1998). Early zoos and aquariums tried to show as many animals as possible; hence, their exhibits were frequently small and bare to permit easy viewing, cleaning, and sterilization. Now, all have come to realize that captive animals need environmental enrichment for their health and for the education and increased expectations of visitors to zoos and aquariums.     

A visit to the zoos and aquariums in Northern Japan

For their trip to the National Parks in Hokkaido the authors also included in their schedule visits to the zoos and aquariums in Northern Japan. Their tight scheduled tour started at the Aquamarine Fukushima, which was after the large tsunami rebuilt and re-opened in July 2011. They continued with a visit to the Kamo Aquarium, which is famous for its unique and large jellyfish exhibition. On Hokkaido Island they visited the smaller zoos in Kushiro and Obihiro with a good collection of native Hokkaido animal species. Included was also the Asahiyama Zoo, which is at the moment one of the most popular zoos in Japan. It is well-known for its innovative enclosures for seals and penguins. The Sapporo Maruyama Zoo and the Chitose Salmon Aquarium were the last highlights of this tour. The themes and animal collections of these different zoos and aquariums are described. The general situation for the northern zoos and aquariums is quite different compared to the institutions in the southern parts of the country and entirely to the zoos in the large city areas like Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya. Here in the northern zoos and aquariums many native animal species and subspecies are kept and often successfully bred.     

Toward a science of welfare for animals in the zoo

Although the accredited institutions of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums have all committed to enhancing the welfare of nonhuman animals, acceptable standards and best practices are still under debate. Currently, experts from zoos and the field hold widely divergent opinions about exhibition and management standards for elephants. Standards and practices for managing nonhuman primates provide a model for other nonhuman creatures exhibited in zoos and aquariums. Examining the key issues for primates demonstrates the value of applying scientific data before promulgating standards. The field of applied behavior analysis provides a wealth of information to frame the debate. Animal behaviorists have contributed to an emerging science of animal welfare, which may provide a foundation for empirical zoo management, standards, and practices.     

Toward a Science of Welfare for Animals in the Zoo

Although the accredited institutions of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums have all committed to enhancing the welfare of nonhuman animals, acceptable standards and best practices are still under debate. Currently, experts from zoos and the field hold widely divergent opinions about exhibition and management standards for elephants. Standards and practices for managing nonhuman primates provide a model for other nonhuman creatures exhibited in zoos and aquariums. Examining the key issues for primates demonstrates the value of applying scientific data before promulgating standards. The field of applied behavior analysis provides a wealth of information to frame the debate. Animal behaviorists have contributed to an emerging science of animal welfare, which may provide a foundation for empirical zoo management, standards, and practices.     

Plasma electrolyte concentrations in captive and free‐ranging African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) maintained with and without dietary salt supplements

African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) are common display animals in North American zoos and aquariums. At present, 43 American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA)‐accredited institutions maintain over 700 of these birds. A survey of facilities found that only seven institutions maintain their birds in “saltwater habitats” (natural, brine, or artificial seawater systems), while the remaining institutions provide freshwater habitats. Penguins maintained in freshwater habitats commonly receive dietary salt supplements, though evidence is lacking as to the value of this practice. This study was designed to evaluate the necessity of salt supplementation in African penguins. We report the results of a randomized, 10‐month comparison of plasma electrolytes (Na, Cl, and K) between groups of 10 salt‐supplemented and nonsupplemented birds living in a freshwater environment. The results showed no significant differences between the two groups. An interfacility comparison at the same time points revealed temporal pattern differences in analyte values between the facilities; however, the absolute concentrations did not exceed clinical ranges found in healthy birds. Furthermore, single time‐point comparisons between wild and captive African penguins indicated similar sodium concentrations, while potassium and chloride concentrations varied between groups. Finally, the plasma electrolyte levels in 20 birds remained statistically unchanged after a 60‐day withdrawal from salt supplementation. This study provides experimental evidence that African penguins maintained in freshwater exhibits on a herring‐, capelin‐, and squid‐based diet do not require salt supplementation. In addition to the practical implications regarding the need for salt supplementation for captive birds, the results also have theoretical significance. They provide evidence that penguins do not need to ingest high salt concentrations to remain in electrolyte balance. In this regard, the ion regulatory mechanisms in penguins are similar to those in terrestrial mammals and birds. Zoo Biol 23:397–408, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Programs for invasive research in North American zoos and aquariums

Zoo-based research in North America is an emerging field, which has progressed from an ad hoc approach in a small number of zoos to a coordinated, integrated network of scientists with recognized research programs in approximately one half of the accredited institutions in North America. The disciplines most active in these programs--veterinary medicine and pathology, nutrition, reproductive biology, contraception, and behavior--are now becoming coordinated in zoos through Scientific Advisory Groups. Zoos with research programs generally establish either an institutional animal care and use committee or another committee to evaluate research proposals. In addition to scientific merit and experimental design, zoos evaluate proposals based on factors such as priority by conservation program/identified need; direct effect on species conservation, species type, and appropriateness; availability and location of animals; operational requirements/logistics; communication between institutions; and available funding. Euthanasia is considered only in rare circumstances. Zoo-based research has evolved into an integral component in animal management and conservation programs by providing practical information that is used to improve animal care, well-being, health, and reproduction. However, the degree to which zoos participate in invasive research varies considerably among institutions, due not only to resource limitations but also to how the term "invasive" is defined and accepted at each institution. A more standardized approach among zoological institutions for examining and approving research projects that are supported by zoo-based conservation programs would greatly facilitate the wildlife research efforts of North American zoos.