The role of crustacean fisheries and aquaculture in global food security: past, present and future

The 1996 World Food Summit defined food security as "Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life". This paper looks at the status of production from both shrimp capture fisheries and shrimp aquaculture, as well as trade, in order to understand the contribution of the crustacean sector to overall fish production and thus to global food security. This paper also examines some sustainability issues that will potentially affect the contribution of the crustacean sector (particularly shrimp) to food security. These include sustainable shrimp capture fisheries, sustainable shrimp trade and sustainable shrimp aquaculture. The paper concludes that crustaceans are an important source of aquatic food protein. Production (as food and ornamental) and trade are extremely important for developing countries. It provides both economic development and empowerment in terms of contribution to GDP, consumption, employment, catch value and exports. The crustacean sector generates high value export products which enables producers to buy lower value products in the world market - thus a positive contribution to food security in both producing and exporting countries.     

Finfish and aquatic invertebrate pathology resources for now and the future

Utilization of finfish and aquatic invertebrates in biomedical research and as environmental sentinels has grown dramatically in recent decades. Likewise the aquaculture of finfish and invertebrates has expanded rapidly worldwide as populations of some aquatic food species and threatened or endangered aquatic species have plummeted due to overharvesting or habitat degradation. This increasing intensive culture and use of aquatic species has heightened the importance of maintaining a sophisticated understanding of pathology of various organ systems of these diverse species. Yet, except for selected species long cultivated in aquaculture, pathology databases and the workforce of highly trained pathologists lag behind those available for most laboratory animals and domestic mammalian and avian species. Several factors must change to maximize the use, understanding, and protection of important aquatic species: 1) improvements in databases of abnormalities across species; 2) standardization of diagnostic criteria for proliferative and nonproliferative lesions; and 3) more uniform and rigorous training in aquatic morphologic pathology.     

When more is more: taking advantage of species diversity to move towards sustainable aquaculture

Human population growth has increased demand for food products, which is expected to double in coming decades. Until recently, this demand has been met by expanding agricultural area and intensifying agrochemical-based monoculture of a few species. However, this development pathway has been criticised due to its negative impacts on the environment and other human activities. Therefore, new production practices are needed to meet human food requirements sustainably in the future. Herein, we assert that polyculture practices can ensure the transition of aquaculture towards sustainable development. We review traditional and recent polyculture practices (ponds, recirculated aquaculture systems, integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, aquaponics, integrated agriculture–aquaculture) to highlight how they improve aquaculture through the coexistence and interactions of species. This overview highlights the importance of species compatibility (i.e. species that can live in the same farming environment without detrimental interactions) and complementarity (i.e. complementary use of available resources and/or commensalism/mutualism) to achieve efficient and ethical aquaculture. Overall, polyculture combines aspects of productivity, environmental protection, resource sharing, and animal welfare. However, several challenges must be addressed to facilitate polyculture development across the world. We developed a four-step conceptual framework for designing innovative polyculture systems. This framework highlights the importance of (i) using prospective approaches to consider which species to combine, (ii) performing integrated assessment of rearing environments to determine in which farming system a particular combination of species is the most relevant, (iii) developing new tools and strategies to facilitate polyculture system management, and (iv) implementing polyculture innovation for relevant stakeholders involved in aquaculture transitions.     

Viral infections of aquatic animals with special reference to Asian aquaculture

Worldwide, the number of communicable diseases of animals raised in aquaculture continue to increase. Viral infections of cultivated shellfish, crustacea, and finfish have been frequently recognized in the past few years. In the Asian regions, penaeid shrimp and several teleost fish underwent epizootics associated with heavy losses in aquaculture. Baculoviruses are particularly harmful to shrimp and prawns. Herpes-, irido-, reo-, or rhabdovirus-like agents can cause outbreaks in fish farms. Viral diseases are important limiting factors in the expansion of aquaculture. However, studies on viral infections of aquatic animals have been focused primarily on economically important farmed fish. Therfore, certain viral diseases of teleost fish are relatively well understood. In contrast, our knowledge of viral infections of farmed aquatic invertebrates is still very spare. Although a great number of viruses have been detected in farmed molluscs and crustaceans, the pathogenicity and epizootiology of most of the agents is not known.     

Presence and development of populations of the introduced brown alga Sargassum muticum in the southwest Netherlands

Of the three Brachionus species used in aquaculture, Brachionus rubens, B. calycilorus and B. plicatilis, the latter is most widely used in raising marine fish and shrimp larvae due to its tolerance to the marine environment. In freshwater aquaculture the use of B. rubens and B. calycilorus is limited, probably because inert food products are readily available as feed for freshwater larvae.The rotifer Brachionus plicatilis is used in large numbers as the first food organism in intensive cultures of marine fish and shrimp larvae. An adequate supply of these rotifers relies on mass cultures. The reproductive rate of rotifers in these cultures depends on food quality and quantity, salinity, temperature and pH of the medium. Removal of waste products from culture tanks leads to higher and more efficient production of rotifers over extended periods of time. Rotifers have to be enriched with polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are essential for proper development and survival of marine fish and shrimp larvae.The future use of preserved rotifers and their resting eggs may help to overcome unforeseen failures of live cultures and may lead to more efficient use of these organisms in raising freshwater and marine fish and shrimp larvae.     

“Green water” microalgae: the leading sector in world aquaculture

Freshwater fish culture is generally considered the largest sector in world aquaculture. Several of the leading species consume “green water” plankton. This plankton—mostly microalgae (phytoplankton) and also bacteria, protozoa and zooplankton—grows in man-made fertilized water impoundments. The quantity of “green water” microalgae consumed by fish and shrimp is estimated here at a quarter billion ton fresh weight a year, about three and a half times as much as the entire recognized aquaculture. This estimate is based on the quantities of the microalgae consumed and the efficiencies of their use for growth by the main species in aquaculture. The cost of producing “green water” microalgae by the aquaculturists—mostly in SE Asia—is low. The populations in “green water” are biologically managed by the cultured fish themselves. The fish with their different feeding habits help “manage” the composition of the plankton and the overall water quality as they grow. The aquaculturists further manage “green water” through simple means, including water exchange and fertilization. Cost is remunerated partially by the income from sales of the fish and partially by bio mitigation services that “green water” polyculture ponds provide the aquaculturists in treating farm and household waste. A comprehension of the scale and importance of the microalgae sector to world aquaculture should lead to more research to improve understanding of algal population dynamics, growth factors, and efficiency of food chains. The consequent improved control of the plankton’s interaction with fish and shrimp production in “green water” will undoubtedly contribute much to the expansion in production of seafood.     

INTEGRATING SEAWEEDS INTO MARINE AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS: A KEY TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY

The rapid development of intensive fed aquaculture (e.g. finfish and shrimp) throughout the world is associated with concerns about the environmental impacts of such often monospecific practices, especially where activities are highly geographically concentrated or located in suboptimal sites whose assimilative capacity is poorly understood and, consequently, prone to being exceeded. One of the main environmental issues is the direct discharge of significant nutrient loads into coastal waters from open-water systems and with the effluents from land-based systems. In its search for best management practices, the aquaculture industry should develop innovative and responsible practices that optimize its efficiency and create diversification, while ensuring the remediation of the consequences of its activities to maintain the health of coastal waters. To avoid pronounced shifts in coastal processes, conversion, not dilution, is a common-sense solution, used for centuries in Asian countries. By integrating fed aquaculture (finfish, shrimp) with inorganic and organic extractive aquaculture (seaweed and shellfish), the wastes of one resource user become a resource (fertilizer or food) for the others. Such a balanced ecosystem approach provides nutrient bioremediation capability, mutual benefits to the cocultured organisms, economic diversification by producing other value-added marine crops, and increased profitability per cultivation unit for the aquaculture industry. Moreover, as guidelines and regulations on aquaculture effluents are forthcoming in several countries, using appropriately selected seaweeds as renewable biological nutrient scrubbers represents a cost-effective means for reaching compliance by reducing the internalization of the total environmental costs. By adopting integrated polytrophic practices, the aquaculture industry should find increasing environmental, economic, and social acceptability and become a full and sustainable partner within the development of integrated coastal management frameworks.     

Marine finfish hatchery technology in the USA – status and future

In 1993, about 52% of the 433 698 tons of thetotal US aquaculture production came from theproduction of freshwater catfish. Excludingsalmonid culture, the percentage of marine finfishculture in total aquaculture production in the UShas been negligible. Commercial scale production ofmarine finfish in hatcheries is very limited in theUS.Studies on eggs and larvae of marine finfishspecies in the US have stemmed from theconsideration of fisheries management rather thanaquaculture. Most of the marine finfish larvaeproduced in the laboratory has been for the purposeof providing materials for other academic relatedstudies. Results of these studies can be applied inthe development of marine finfish hatcherytechnology. Hatchery technology for several marinefinfish species has been developed for stockenhancement, technology transfer and aquaculture. This paper reviews the current hatchery technologyof striped mullet (Mugil cephalus), dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus), red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus), and other potentialaquaculture species.     

Carbon sources and trophic structure in a macrophyte‐dominated polyculture pond assessed by stable‐isotope analysis

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An overview of aquaculture in eastern Africa

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Current status and future perspectives of Italian finfish aquaculture

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Food safety and products from aquaculture

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The impact and control of biofouling in marine aquaculture: a review

Biofouling in marine aquaculture is a specific problem where both the target culture species and/or infrastructure are exposed to a diverse array of fouling organisms, with significant production impacts. In shellfish aquaculture the key impact is the direct fouling of stock causing physical damage, mechanical interference, biological competition and environmental modification, while infrastructure is also impacted. In contrast, the key impact in finfish aquaculture is the fouling of infrastructure which restricts water exchange, increases disease risk and causes deformation of cages and structures. Consequently, the economic costs associated with biofouling control are substantial. Conservative estimates are consistently between 5–10% of production costs (equivalent to US$ 1.5 to 3 billion yr^?1), illustrating the need for effective mitigation methods and technologies. The control of biofouling in aquaculture is achieved through the avoidance of natural recruitment, physical removal and the use of antifoulants. However, the continued rise and expansion of the aquaculture industry and the increasingly stringent legislation for biocides in food production necessitates the development of innovative antifouling strategies. These must meet environmental, societal, and economic benchmarks while effectively preventing the settlement and growth of resilient multi-species consortia of biofouling organisms.     

Lessons from two high CO2 worlds – future oceans and intensive aquaculture

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Mariculture in Israel – past achievements and future directions in raising rotifers as food for marine fish larvae

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海水混养池塘虾蛤肠道与养殖环境的微生物多样性

【背景】海水混养池塘环境微生物以及动物肠道微生物的群落结构已有研究,但对混养环境中多品种动物肠道与环境微生物群落的关系尚未见报道。【目的】研究海水虾蛤混养环境中微生物多样性以及与养殖动物健康之间的关系。【方法】采用Illumina高通量测序技术测定冬季莆田市北江养殖区2个混养池塘中水体、底泥以及虾蛤肠道的菌群结构。【结果】同一池塘水体与底泥之间、不同池塘水体或底泥之间的微生物结构存在一定的差异;同一养殖区2个混养池塘虾与蛤肠道微生物结构之间具有极高的相似性,与养殖环境存在显著的差异。微生物多样性和丰富度差异很大,表现出底泥水体肠道;虾蛤肠道微生物以厚壁细菌和γ-变形细菌为主;池塘水体以放线菌、α-变形细菌以及拟杆菌为主,底泥以γ-变形细菌和δ-变形细菌为主。养殖动物肠道微生物主要优势种为乳球菌属和假单胞菌属,池塘环境内存在较高丰度的黄杆菌类潜在致病菌,而在虾和蛤的肠道中基本未检出。2个池塘底泥硫还原细菌含量较高,增加了底质产生硫化氢等有害物质的风险。【结论】比较混养池塘中水体、底泥以及虾蛤肠道三者之间微生物群落结构的差异,揭示虾、贝混养模式微生物与养殖环境的关系,为池塘养殖虾、贝疾病防治和混养结构的优化提供参考。     

The impact and control of biofouling in marine aquaculture: a review

Biofouling in marine aquaculture is a specific problem where both the target culture species and/or infrastructure are exposed to a diverse array of fouling organisms, with significant production impacts. In shellfish aquaculture the key impact is the direct fouling of stock causing physical damage, mechanical interference, biological competition and environmental modification, while infrastructure is also impacted. In contrast, the key impact in finfish aquaculture is the fouling of infrastructure which restricts water exchange, increases disease risk and causes deformation of cages and structures. Consequently, the economic costs associated with biofouling control are substantial. Conservative estimates are consistently between 5-10% of production costs (equivalent to US$ 1.5 to 3 billion yr(-1)), illustrating the need for effective mitigation methods and technologies. The control of biofouling in aquaculture is achieved through the avoidance of natural recruitment, physical removal and the use of antifoulants. However, the continued rise and expansion of the aquaculture industry and the increasingly stringent legislation for biocides in food production necessitates the development of innovative antifouling strategies. These must meet environmental, societal, and economic benchmarks while effectively preventing the settlement and growth of resilient multi-species consortia of biofouling organisms.