DNA strand breaks in mammalian tissues induced by methylarsenics

DNA damage induced by administration of dimethylarsinic acid (DMAA) to rats and mice was investigated. At 12 h after administration of DMAA, DNA single-strand breaks were induced markedly in lung. The majority of dimethylarsine, one of the main metabolites, in the expired air was excreted within 6–18 h after administration of DMAA to rats. In vitro experiments using nuclei isolated from lung of mice indicated that DNA strand breaks were caused by dimethylarsine. Furthermore, the strand breaks after exposure to dimethylarsine were reduced in the presence of catalase and/or superoxide dismutase. These results strongly suggest that the strand breaks are induced not by dimethylarsine itself but by active oxygen, e.g., O ₂ ^? and ·OH, produced both by dimethylarsine and molecular oxygen. When DNA was exposed to dimethylarsine, thiobarbituric acid (TBA)-reactive intermediates andcis-thymine glycol were produced. Dimethylarsine appears to induce DNA damage by the mechanism similar to the damage produced by ionizing radiation.     

Dimethylated arsenics induce DNA strand breaks in lung via the production of active oxygen in mice

In order to study the genotoxicity of arsenics, we focused our attention on dimethylarsinic acid (DMAA) which was a main metabolite of inorganic arsenics in mammals. ICR mice were orally administered DMAA-Na (1500mg/kg). DNA single-strand breaks occurred specifically in lung at 12h after administration. An in vitro experiment indicated that the breaks were not caused directly by DMAA but by dimethylarsine, a further metabolite of DMAA. Furthermore, the dimethylarsine-induced breaks were diminished by the addition of SOD and catalase, suggesting that active oxygen produced by dimethylarsine was involved in the induction of DNA damage.     

Role of active oxygen species in metal-induced DNA strand breakage in human diploid fibroblasts

The ability of 6 metal salts to induce DNA damage in human diploid fibroblasts was examined. Cadmium, magnesium, manganese, chromium(VI), zinc and selenite were all shown to induce DNA strand breaks as measured by two independent assays. DNA strand breaks were repaired within 2-4 h after removal of metal and this repair appeared not to be sensitive to "long-patch" repair inhibitors. With the exception of selenite, metal-induced DNA damage appeared to be mediated via the formation of active oxygen species since oxygen scavengers when administered simultaneously with the metal, antagonized strand break formation. Selenite-induced DNA damage (as previously reported) was dependent on the formation of a selenite-glutathione conjugant and was not affected by oxygen radical scavengers. Scavenger treatment did not enhance cloning ability of metal-treated cells suggesting that DNA strand breaks may not be important in metal-induced cytotoxicity.     

DNA strand-breaking activity and mutagenicity of 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one (DDMP), a Maillard reaction product of glucose and glycine

Aqueous solution of glucose and glycine was heated under reflux for 4 h and extracted with ethyl acetate. Reversed phase HPLC of the extract revealed a new DNA strand-breaking substance, which was purified by repeated HPLC and identified as 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one (DDMP). DDMP induced DNA strand breaking in a dose- and time-dependent manner. It was active to break DNA strands at pH 7.4 and 9.4. Its pyranone skeleton was destroyed at the pH values. DNA strand breaking by DDMP was inhibited by superoxide dismutase, catalase, scavengers for hydroxyl radical, spin trapping agents and metal chelators, and the breaking was enhanced by Fe(III) ion. A mixture of DDMP and a spin trap DMPO gave electron spin resonance signals of a spin adduct DMPO-OH, indicating generation of hydroxyl radical. DDMP was found to be mutagenic to Salmonella typhimurium TA100 without metabolic activation. These results show DDMP generated active oxygen species to cause DNA strand breaking and mutagenesis.     

Dimethylarsine likely acts as a mouse-pulmonary tumor initiator via the production of dimethylarsine radical and/or its peroxy radical

AimsRecent animal experiments have indicated that dimethylarsinic acid (DMA), a main metabolite of inorganic arsenic, is a complete carcinogen in the lung of mice and the urinary bladder of rats, nevertheless, no ultimate-active metabolite from DMA has been identified thus far. We have proposed that dimethylarsine ((CH₃)₂AsH), an ultimate reductive metabolite of DMA, is excreted in the expired air of mice administered DMA, and furthermore, was easily converted into dimethylarsine radical ((CH₃)₂As?) and dimethylarsine peroxy radical ((CH₃)₂AsOO?) by its reaction with O₂. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the possible mode of the tumorigenic action by dimethylated arsenic.Main methodsIn vitro experiments using GSH reductase as a two-electron donor of dimethylarsenic-glutathione conjugate ((CH₃)₂As-SG) and DNA adduct assay via a photochemical approach were performed. A lung tumorigenicity assay of (CH₃)₂AsH suspended in argon-atmospheric olive oil for 5 days was also conducted in mice.Key findingsThe results indicated that (CH₃)₂AsH was easily produced enzymatically from (CH₃)₂As-SG and showed tumor-initiating action in mouse lung via the production of (CH₃)₂As? and (CH₃)₂AsOO? by its reaction with O₂, and that these radicals have the ability to form DNA adducts.SignificanceThe carcinogenicity of DMA, at least in mouse lung, could be explained based on the proposal that oral administration of DMA induces pulmonary tumors in mice, and arises from the arsine radicals produced through (CH₃)₂AsH, which was enzymatically reduced from (CH₃)₂As-SG.     

Different DNA damaging species as a result of oxidation of n-butyraldehyde and iso-butyraldehyde by Cu(II)

The isomers n- and iso-butyraldehyde (BuA) in combination with Cu(II) induced single and double strand breaks in PM2 DNA, whereas the aldehydes, or Cu(II) alone had only negligible effect. The DNA damage was the result of radical oxidations of the aldehydes under formation of Cu(I). Cu(I) formation was independent of molecular oxygen. Extensive DNA degradation was only observed in the presence of molecular oxygen. Characterization of DNA damage pointed to different ultimate DNA damaging species. While catalase and neocuproine inhibited strand break formation induced by iso-BuA/Cu(II) to a high degree, these inhibitors were less effective in the n-BuA/Cu(II) reaction. On the other hand, sodium azide showed a high strand break inhibition in the n-BuA/Cu(II) reaction, but low inhibition in the iso-BuA/Cu(II) reaction. 2-Deoxyguanosine was hydroxylated in the 8-position by iso-BuA/Cu(II) but little reaction occurred with n-BuA/Cu(II). Chemiluminescence was detected during both BuA/Cu(II) reactions, whereby the intensity of the luminescence signal was 3.5-fold higher for n-BuA/Cu(II) than for iso-BuA/Cu(II). We suppose that the copper(II)-driven oxidation of n- and iso-BuA proceeds via different pathways with different DNA damaging consequences. Whereas the oxidation of iso-BuA mainly results in damage by ^·OH-radicals, the oxidation of n-BuA may lead to a radical reaction chain whereby excited states are involved and the resulting DNA-damaging species are not ^·OH-radicals.     

Pentachlorophenol

Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is a substance whose widespread use, mainly in wood protection and pulp and paper mills, has led to a substantial environmental contamination. This in turn accounts for a significant exposure of the general human population, with rather high exposure levels being attained in occupational settings. Investigations on the genotoxic activity of PCP have given rise to divergent results which would seem to make an evaluation difficult. By grouping them into 3 categories a somewhat clearer picture, allowing finally an (admittedly tentative) assessment, can be obtained. PCP does seem to be at most a weak inducer of DNA damage: it produces neither DNA-strand breaks nor clear differential toxicity to bacteria in rec-assays in the absence of metabolic activation. Also in SCE induction no increase can be observed in vivo, while PCP is found marginally active in a single in vitro experiment. Metabolic activation, however, leads to prophage induction and to DNA strand breaks in human lymphocytes, presumably through the formation of oxygen radicals. A possible further exception in this area might be the positive results in the yeast recombination tests, although their inadequate reporting makes a full evaluation difficult. PCP does not seem to induce gene (point) mutations, as most bacterial assays, the Drosophila sex-linked recessive lethal test and in vitro assays with mammalian cells did not demonstrate any effects. Marginally positive results were obtained in the mammalian spot test in vivo and in one bacterial test; the positive result in the yeast assay for cycloheximide resistance is fraught somewhat with its questionable genetic basis. PCP does, however, induce chromosomal aberrations in mammalian cells in vitro and in lymphocytes of exposed persons in vivo. Those in vivo results that were unable to provide evidence of chromosomal damage are hampered either by methodological inadequacies or by too low exposure levels. The (rodent) metabolite tetrachlorohydroquinone might be a real genotoxic agent, capable of binding to DNA and producing DNA strand breaks; this activity is probably due to semiquinone radical formation and partly mediated through active oxygen species. Since this compound has not been tested in the common bacterial and mammalian mutagenicity assays, the few ancillary results on this substance cannot be used in a meaningful human risk assessment of PCP. Furthermore, this metabolite has only been produced by human liver microsomes in vitro, but has not been detected in exposed humans in vivo.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Pentachlorophenol

Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is a substance whose widespread use, mainly in wood protection and pulp and paper mills, has led to a substantial environmental contamination. This in turn accounts for a significant exposure of the general human population, with rather high exposure levels being attained in occupational settings.Investigations on the genotoxic activity of PCP have given rise to divergent results which would seem to make an evaluation difficult. By grouping them into 3 categories a somewhat clearer picture, allowing finally an (admittedly tentative) assessment, can be obtained.PCP does seem to be at most a weak inducer of DNA damage: it produces neither DNA-strand breaks nor clear differential toxicity to bacteria in rec-assays in the absence of metabolic activation. Also in SCE induction no increase can be observed in vivo, while PCP is found marginally active in a single in vitro experiment. Metabolic activation, however, leads to prophage induction and to DNA strand breaks in. human lymphocytes, presumably through the formation of oxygen radicals. A possible further exception in this area might be the positive results in the yeast recombination tests, although their inadequate reporting makes a full evaluation difficult.PCP does not seem to induce gene (point) mutations, as most bacterial assays, the Drosophila sex-linked recessive lethal test and in vitro assays with mammalian cells did not demonstrate any effects. Marginally positive results were obtained in the mammalian spot test in vivo and in one bacterial test; the positive result in the yeast assay for cycloheximide resistance is fraught somewhat with its questionable genetic basis.PCP does, however, induce chromosomal aberrations in mammalian cells in vitro and in lymphocytes of exposed persons in vivo. Those in vivo results that were unable to provide evidence of chromosomal damage are hampered either by methodological inadequacies or by too low exposure levels.The (rodent) metabolite tetrachlorohydroquinone might be a real genotoxic agent, capable of binding to DNA and producing DNA strand breaks; this activity is probably due to semiquinone radical formation and partly mediated through active oxygen species. Since this compound has not been tested in the common bacterial and mammalian mutagenicity assays, the few ancillary results on this substance cannot be used in a meaningful human risk assessment of PCP. Furthermore, this metabolite has only been produced by human liver microsomes in vitro, but has not been detected in exposed humans in vivo. Its formation in mutagenicity test systems and its activity involving radicals might, however, help to explain some of the divergencies in the genotoxicity results.The review concludes that PCP is a weak human clastogen which may lack other genotoxic properties, although it may add somewhat to the normal oxidative damage.     

The involvement of singlet oxygen in copper-phenanthroline/H2O2-induced DNA base damage: a chemiluminescent study

Copper in the presence of excess 1,10-phenanthroline, a reducing agent, and H2O2 causes DNA base damage as well as strand breakage. We have reported in previous work that a strong chemiluminescence was followed by DNA base damage in this system, which is characteristic of guanine. In the present work, the mechanism of the chemiluminescence was studied. Results show that the luminescence was inhibited by all three classes of reactive oxygen species (*OH, O2-, (1)O2) scavengers to different degrees. Singlet oxygen scavengers showed the most powerful inhibition while the other two classes of scavengers were relatively weaker. The emission intensity in D2O was 3-fold that in H2O. Comparing the effect of scavengers on the luminescence of DNA with that of dGMP, the ratio of inhibition was similar. On the other hand, DNA breakage analysis showed that inhibition by the singlet oxygen scavenger NaN3 of strand breakage was strong and comparable to that of the scavengers of the two oxygen radicals. The results suggest that singlet oxygen may be a major factor for the chemiluminescence of guanine, while DNA strand breakage may be caused by many active species.     

The effect of reductant levels on the formation of damage lesions derived from a 2-deoxyribose radical in ssDNA

Thiols play a major role in the outcome of oxidative damage to DNA when it is initiated through cellular exposure to ionizing radiation. DNA radicals formed under aerobic conditions are converted to peroxyl radicals through trapping by oxygen at a diffusion-controlled rate. As a primary source of cellular reductant, thiols are responsible for the conversion of these DNA-derived peroxyl radicals to their corresponding hydrogen peroxides and subsequent strand breaks. Through the use of modified nucleotides, which act as precursors to nucleic acid radicals, we have investigated the effect of varying amounts of the cellular thiol glutathione (GSH) on the distribution of damage products produced from a 2-deoxyribose radical in DNA: the C3'-thymidinyl radical. The C3'-thymidinyl radical results from the abstraction of a hydrogen atom from the C3'-position of DNA oligomers at a thymidine residue, and is known to deliver several DNA damage lesions including the 3'-phosphoglycolaldehyde, 3'-phosphoglycolate and a 5'-aldehyde. Here we show that the level of GSH present has an impact on the level of production of these C3'-thymidinyl radical derived damage products.     

Mapping of peroxyl radical induced damage on genomic DNA

We have examined the DNA damage produced by reaction of peroxyl radicals with human fibroblast DNA. DNA damage consisted of both strand breaks and base modifications. The extent of strand breaks and base modifications induced as a function of peroxyl radical concentration was determined by quantitation of fragment size distributions using denaturing glyoxal-agarose gel electrophoresis. Both strand breaks and base modifications increased in a log linear fashion with respect to peroxyl radical concentration. Oxidative base modifications were observed to occur to a greater extent than strand breaks at every concentration measured. The sequence-specific distribution of peroxyl radical induced base damage was mapped for 803 nucleotide positions using the method of ligation mediated PCR. A total of 87% of all guanine positions in the examined sequences was found to be significantly oxidized. The order of reactivity of DNA bases toward oxidation by peroxyl radicals was found to be G > C > T. Adenine is essentially unreactive. The yield of oxidative base modifications at guanines and cytosines by peroxyl radicals depends on the exact specification of 5' and 3' flanking bases in a polarity dependent manner. Every guanine in the 5'XGC3' motif was found to be oxidized, where X is any 5' neighbor. In contrast, 5' and 3' purine flanks drastically reduced the extent of peroxyl radical G oxidation. The pattern of base modification and the influence of nearest neighbors differs substantially from that previously reported for hydrogen peroxide damage mediated by low valent transition metal ions for the identical DNA sequences.     

Differential DNA strand breaking abilities of *OH and ROS generating radiomimetic chemicals and gamma-rays: study of plasmid DNA, pMTa4, in vitro

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) interact with components of a living cell. Among them ^⋅OH is known to cause major oxidative damage to living cells and is proposed to be involved in pathogenesis including carcinogenesis. Proper understanding of consequences of such damage is, therefore, medically relevant. In this report, aqueous solution of plasmid DNA, pMTa4, has been exposed to Fenton oxidant and Haber-Weiss oxidant mediated free radical generating chemical systems, and ⁶⁰Co γ-rays in vitro either alone or in combination to study their strand breaking abilities. The exposed pMTa4 was analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis. The results show qualitative differences in the induction of strand breaks on the plasmid pMTa4 molecule by the iron (Fe²⁺), copper (Cu²⁺) or γ-rays mediated ^⋅OH and other ROS.     

Protection of mammalian cells by o-phenanthroline from lethal and DNA-damaging effects produced by active oxygen species

Active oxygen species are suspected as being a cause of the cellular damage that occurs at the site of inflammation. Phagocytic cells accumulate at these sites and produce superoxide ion, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical. The ultimate killing species, the cellular target and the mechanism whereby the lethal injury is produced are unknown. We exposed mouse fibroblasts to xanthine oxidase and acetaldehyde, a system which mimics the membrane of phagocytic cells in terms of production of oxygen species. We observed that the generation of these species produced DNA strand breaks and cellular death. The metal chelator o-phenanthroline completely abolished the former effect, and at the same time it effectively protected the cells from lethal injuries. Because complexing iron o-phenanthroline prevents the formation of hydroxyl radical by the Fendon reaction (Fe(II) + H2O2----Fe(III) + OH- + OH.), it is proposed that most of the cell death and DNA damage are brought about by OH radical, produced from other species by iron-mediated reactions.     

Distinct mechanisms of oxidative DNA damage by two metabolites of carcinogenic o-toluidine

Mechanisms of DNA damage by metabolites of carcinogenic o-toluidine in the presence of metals were investigated by the DNA sequencing technique using (32)P-labeled human DNA fragments. 4-Amino-3-methylphenol, a major metabolite, caused DNA damage in the presence of Cu(II). Predominant cleavage sites were thymine and cytosine residues. o-Nitrosotoluene, a minor metabolite, did not induce DNA damage even in the presence of Cu(II), but addition of NADH induced DNA damage very efficiently. The DNA cleavage pattern was similar to that in the case of 4-amino-3-methylphenol. Bathocuproine and catalase inhibited DNA damage by these o-toluidine metabolites, indicating the participation of Cu(I) and H(2)O(2) in the DNA damage. Typical free hydroxyl radical scavengers showed no inhibitory effects on the DNA damage. o-Toluidine metabolites increased the formation of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine in calf thymus DNA in the presence of Cu(II). UV-visible and ESR spectroscopic studies have demonstrated that 4-amino-3-methylphenol is autoxidized to form the aminomethylphenoxyl radical and o-nitrosotoluene is reduced by NADH to the o-toluolhydronitroxide radical in the presence and absence of Cu(II). Consequently, it is considered that these radicals react with O(2) to form O(-)(2) and subsequently H(2)O(2), and that the reactive species generated by the reaction of H(2)O(2) with Cu(I) participate in the DNA damage. Metal-mediated DNA damage by o-toluidine metabolites through H(2)O(2) seems to be relevant for the expression of the carcinogenicity of o-toluidine.     

DNA Single Strand Breaks by Aromatic Nitroso Compounds in the Presence of Thiols

Aromatic nitroso compounds, nitrosobenzene (NB), N, N-dimethyl-4-nitrosoaniline (DMNA) and 3,5-dibromo-4-nitrosobenzene sulfonate (DBNBS), caused DNA single strand breaks in the presence of thiol compounds. The strand breaking was inhibited completely by free radical scavenger ethanol. Electron spin resonance (ESR) studies showed that hydronitroxyl (or sulfur-substituted nitroxyl) radicals were generated in the early stage of the interactions. Formation of these radicals was not inhibited by ethanol, indicating that these radicals did not directly contribute to the strand breaking. The DNA strand breaking was inhibited partially by superoxide dismutase and catalase under the limited conditions, but not by removal of oxygen from or addition of metal chelators to the reaction mixture. By ESR-spin trapping technique using 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide (DMPO), the DMPO-OH spin adduct was detected. Formation of the spin adduct was inhibited by superoxide dismutase and catalase. The hydronitroxyl (or the sulfur-substituted nitroxyl) radicals may reduce oxygen into active oxygen species and also transformed by themselves into other unidentified free radical species to cause the DNA strand breaks.     

Oxygen and nitrogen are pro-carcinogens. Damage to DNA by reactive oxygen, chlorine and nitrogen species: measurement, mechanism and the effects of nutrition.

Humans are exposed to many carcinogens, but the most significant may be the reactive species derived from metabolism of oxygen and nitrogen. Nitric oxide seems unlikely to damage DNA directly, but nitrous acid produces deamination and peroxynitrite leads to both deamination and nitration. Scavenging of reactive nitrogen species generated in the stomach may be an important role of flavonoids, flavonoids and other plant-derived phenolic compounds. Different reactive oxygen species produce different patterns of damage to DNA bases, e.g., such patterns have been used to implicate hydroxyl radical as the ultimate agent in H(2)O(2)-induced DNA damage. Levels of steady-state DNA damage in vivo are consistent with the concept that such damage is a major contributor to the age-related development of cancer and so such damage can be used as a biomarker to study the effects of diet or dietary supplements on risk of cancer development, provided that reliable assays are available. Methodological questions addressed in this article include the validity of measuring 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8OHdG) in cellular DNA or in urine as a biomarker of DNA damage, the extent of artifact formation during analysis of oxidative DNA damage by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and the levels of oxidative damage in mitochondrial DNA.     

Bilirubin-Cu(II) complex degrades DNA.

It has recently been reported that bilirubin forms a complex with Cu(II). In this paper we show that the formation of the complex results in the reduction of Cu(II) to Cu(I) and the redox cycling of the metal gives rise to the formation of reactive oxygen species, particularly hydroxyl radical. The bilirubin-Cu(II) complex causes strand breakage in calf thymus DNA and supercoiled plasmid DNA. Cu(I) was shown to be an essential intermediate in the DNA cleavage reaction by using the Cu(I) specific sequestering reagent neocuproine. Bilirubin-Cu(II) produced hydroxyl radical and the involvement of active oxygen species was established by the inhibition of DNA breakage by various oxygen radical quenchers.     

Poly(deoxyadenylic-deoxythymidylic acid) damage by radiolytically activated neocarzinostatin

The anaerobic reaction of poly(deoxyadenylic-deoxythymidylic acid) with neocarzinostatin activated by the carboxyl radical CO2-, an electron donor generated from gamma-ray radiolysis of nitrous oxide saturated formate buffer, has been characterized. DNA damage includes base release and strand breaks. Few strand breaks are formed prior to alkaline treatment; they bear 3'-phosphoryl termini. In contrast, most (66%) of the base release occurs spontaneously. DNA damage is highly (95%) specific for thymidine sites. Neither DNA-drug covalent adduct nor nucleoside 5'-aldehyde, which are major products in the DNA-nicking reaction initiated by mercaptans and oxygen, is formed in this reaction. Data are presented to show that the CO2(-)-activated neocarzinostatin intermediate is a short-lived free radical able to abstract hydrogen atoms from the C-1' and C-5' positions of deoxyribose. Attack occurs mostly (68%) at the C-1' position, producing a lesion whose properties are consistent with those of (oxidized) apyrimidinic sites.     

Sequence-specific DNA damage induced by reduced mitomycin C and 7-N-(p-hydroxyphenyl)mitomycin C.

Mitomycin C reduced with sodium borohydride induced the DNA damage at deoxyguanosines preferentially in dinucleotide sequence G-T. The DNA damage produced strand breaks when subsequently heated. The DNA damage scarcely occurred when the end-labeled DNA was preincubated with ethidium bromide or actinomycin D before the addition of mitomycin C and the reducing agent. Fully reduced mitomycin C did not induce the DNA damage. The mitomycin C-inducing DNA damage seems to require the intercalation of the partially reduced mitomycin C of short life time, probably semiquinone radical, between DNA base pairs. The inhibitory effects of sodium chloride and radical scavengers suggested that the requirement of the covalent bond formation of mitomycin C to DNA and the involvement of oxygen radicals in the DNA damage. 7-N-(p-hydroxyphenyl)mitomycin C, which is reported to show a higher antitumor activity and a lower toxicity than mitomycin C, was readily reduced with dithiothreitol and induced the sequence-specific DNA damage, whereas mitomycin C was not.