水飞蓟宾微量元素配合物的合成及其抗菌抗肿瘤活性研究

合成水飞蓟宾钙、铁、锌、硒、铬、钴配合物6个中药新药,采用IR、UV、Lc-MS、EDTA络合滴定和元素分析仪表征配合物化学结构,结果显示合成的配合物配位比为2∶1(水飞蓟宾∶微量元素),且小鼠急性毒性实验显示6个配合物均无明显毒性。采用倍比稀释法测定配合物对枯草杆菌等9种致病菌的抑制活性,发现其最小抑菌浓度MIC均低于水飞蓟宾,抗菌活性提升至2～4倍;采用MTT法测定配合物对5株肿瘤细胞增殖的影响,发现其半数抑制浓度IC_(50)均小于水飞蓟宾,抗肿瘤活性提升至1.11～1.53倍。综上,水飞蓟宾与微量元素形成配合物后,其抗菌及抗肿瘤活性均增强。     

水飞蓟宾乳糖苷的合成、表征及抗氧化活性研究

实验设计旨在提高水飞蓟宾的水溶性、生物活性,以水飞蓟宾和乳糖苷为原料合成水飞蓟宾乙酰乳糖苷和水飞蓟宾乳糖苷.采用IR、1H NMR、13C NMR及HPLC-MS等手段对产物进行结构表征,并测定了水飞蓟宾乳糖修饰物的还原能力,清除DPPH自由基,清除ABTS+自由基能力及抑制脂质过氧化能力.结果表明水飞蓟宾乳糖苷的抗氧化活性显著优于水飞蓟宾.     

水飞蓟宾抑制人肺癌细胞浸润的作用机制研究

目的通过观察水飞蓟宾对有高转移能力的人肺癌细胞A549相关酶的作用来研究水飞蓟宾对浸润和运动性的影响。方法应用细胞活性测定、细胞浸润和运动性分析、细胞-基质黏附实验、逆转录聚合酶链反应等技术完成实验。结果A549细胞用高达100μM的不同浓度的水飞蓟宾处理一定时间后,行明胶酶谱、酪蛋白酶谱以及蛋白印迹分析来确定水飞蓟宾对金属蛋白酶-2（MMP-2）的影响。结论水飞蓟宾治疗可以浓度以及时间依存性方式减少MMP-2表达。半定量RT—PCR分析进一步表明,水飞蓟宾可在转录水平调节MMP-2表达。     

水飞蓟宾葡甲胺的结构与溶解性

本文以紫外分光光度法(UV)、差示扫描量热法(DSC)、液质联用(HPLC-ESI-MS)等方法分析合成的水飞蓟宾葡甲胺的结构,并测定了其在25 ℃水中的溶解度.结果表明,水飞蓟宾葡甲胺以盐的形式存在,有别于水飞蓟宾与葡甲胺的简单混合.水飞蓟宾葡甲胺在酸性流动相溶液中容易解离成水飞蓟宾与葡甲胺,水飞蓟宾的物理化学性质没有改变,因此,HPLC法分析水飞蓟宾葡甲胺有局限性,DSC法分析可以作为水飞蓟宾葡甲胺质量的参考依据.水飞蓟宾的溶解度为37.350 mg/L,水飞蓟宾葡甲胺的溶解度为7182.50 mg/L,水飞蓟宾葡甲胺明显改善了水飞蓟宾在水中的溶解性能.     

水飞蓟宾诱导肺腺癌Anip973细胞凋亡的分子机制研究

目的：探讨水飞蓟宾诱导肺腺癌Anip973细胞系细胞凋亡的分子机制。方法：采用MTT法、倒置显微镜和电子显微镜等形态学检测以及流式细胞仪（FCM）技术检测、DNALadder分析、凋亡分子PARP的表达检测细胞凋亡,同时进行凋亡相关蛋白Bax、Bcl-2、caspase-3和caspase-9表达活性分析。结果：（1）水飞蓟宾对人肺腺癌Anip973细胞系细胞的增殖有显著抑制作用;（2）水飞蓟宾作用Anip973细胞48h后,随着浓度的增加,倒置显微镜下可见细胞数目减少,胞体变小、变圆,到高浓度时出现较多的死亡细胞;（3）扫描电镜观察发现,随着水飞蓟宾作用浓度的增加,Anip973细胞中出现增多的凋亡细胞,凋亡细胞表现出典型的超微结构特征;（4）流式细胞仪检测的结果发现,随着药物作用时间的延长,Anip973细胞的G1期细胞比例增多,S期细胞明显减少,G2期细胞略有减少,并出现明显的凋亡峰。（5）水飞蓟宾作用后的Anip973细胞出现明显的DNALadder和PARP降解增加等凋亡特征;（6）水飞蓟宾作用后,Anip973细胞中的凋亡相关蛋白Bax表达增加、caspase-3和caspase-9酶活性增加,而Bcl-2表达降低。结论：水飞蓟宾在体外有抑制人肺腺癌细胞Anip973的增殖作用,并通过激活线粒体依赖的caspase凋亡通路,诱导其凋亡。     

水飞蓟宾诱导肺腺癌Anip973 细胞凋亡的分子机制研究

目的:探讨水飞蓟宾诱导肺腺癌Anip973细胞系细胞凋亡的分子机制。方法:采用MTT法、倒置显微镜和电子显微镜等形态学检测以及流式细胞仪(FCM)技术检测、DNALadder分析、凋亡分子PARP的表达检测细胞凋亡,同时进行凋亡相关蛋白Bax、Bcl-2、caspase-3和caspase-9表达活性分析。结果:(1)水飞蓟宾对人肺腺癌Anip973细胞系细胞的增殖有显著抑制作用;(2)水飞蓟宾作用Anip973细胞48h后,随着浓度的增加,倒置显微镜下可见细胞数目减少,胞体变小、变圆,到高浓度时出现较多的死亡细胞;(3)扫描电镜观察发现,随着水飞蓟宾作用浓度的增加,Anip973细胞中出现增多的凋亡细胞,凋亡细胞表现出典型的超微结构特征;(4)流式细胞仪检测的结果发现,随着药物作用时间的延长,Anip973细胞的G1期细胞比例增多,S期细胞明显减少,G2期细胞略有减少,并出现明显的凋亡峰。(5)水飞蓟宾作用后的Anip973细胞出现明显的DNALadder和PARP降解增加等凋亡特征;(6)水飞蓟宾作用后,Anip973细胞中的凋亡相关蛋白Bax表达增加、caspase-3和caspase-9酶活性增加,而Bcl-2表达降低。结论:水飞蓟宾在体外有抑制人肺腺癌细胞Anip973的增殖作用,并通过激活线粒体依赖的caspase凋亡通路,诱导其凋亡。     

灵芝总三萜对鹅膏毒肽中毒小鼠所致肝损伤的保护作用研究

鹅膏肽类毒素是蘑菇中毒导致死亡的最主要因素,用于鹅膏中毒治疗的解毒药物已有大量报道,水飞蓟宾（silibinin,SIL）被认为是目前最有效的解毒药物。灵芝作为我国传统的中药真菌,具有良好的保肝护肝作用。本文开展灵芝主要活性成分灵芝总三萜（Ganoderma total triterpenoids,GTT）和对照药物水飞蓟宾对α-鹅膏毒肽（α-amanitin,α-AMA）中毒小鼠所致肝损伤的保护作用及其抗氧化机理研究,结果表明α-鹅膏毒肽中毒小鼠经灵芝总三萜和水飞蓟宾治疗后小鼠血清中的ALT和AST活性显著降低,小鼠死亡率降低40%-50%,病理组织切片观察表明能明显减轻肝组织损伤的程度,说明灵芝总三萜与水飞蓟宾一样,对α-鹅膏毒肽中毒小鼠的肝具有很好的保护作用。灵芝总三萜给药组和水飞蓟宾给药组能显著增加肝组织中SOD和CAT的活性,显著降低肝脏中MDA含量,表明灵芝总三萜和水飞蓟宾具有抗氧化和自由基清除剂作用,能减轻α-鹅膏毒肽所引起的脂质过氧化伤害作用。     

水飞蓟宾抑制肝癌细胞HepG2增殖和迁移能力

目的探讨水飞蓟宾对肝癌细胞生长、增殖和迁移能力的影响。方法用含不同浓度水飞蓟宾的培养基孵育HepG2细胞后,采用倒置显微镜观察细胞形态,应用MTT法、Ed U掺入实验和细胞克隆形成实验法检测细胞增殖能力,应用细胞划痕试验分析水飞蓟宾对HepG2迁移能力的影响。结果用不同浓度水飞蓟宾刺激HepG2细胞后,倒置显微镜镜检显示:水飞蓟宾刺激使细胞数目减少,胞体皱缩变小,高浓度刺激时出现较多的死亡细胞。MTT分析、Ed U增殖实验和克隆形成实验显示:水飞蓟宾刺激使细胞增殖能力显著降低,细胞的克隆形成数显著减少。细胞划痕试验结果显示:水飞蓟宾对HepG2细胞的迁移爬行能力也产生明显抑制作用。结论水飞蓟宾能抑制HepG2细胞的增殖和迁移能力,这可能是其发挥抗肿瘤作用的机制之一。     

水飞蓟宾诱导卵巢癌HO-8910细胞凋亡增殖及其机制探讨

目的:探讨水飞蓟宾对人卵巢癌HO-8910细胞增殖的抑制作用及其作用机制。方法:HO-8910细胞分为四组:(1)对照组;(2)水飞蓟宾低浓度组;(3)水飞蓟宾中浓度组;(4)水飞蓟宾高浓度组。通过MTT法测定细胞增值率,流式细胞技术检测细胞凋亡情况,Hoechst染色观查细胞核凋亡,Western-blot检测bax及bcl-2表达。结果:细胞增殖检测结果显示,水飞蓟宾低、中、高浓度组的抑制率(83.00±5.51%、65.33±3.48%、56.67±4.37%)与对照组(97.33±4.25%)比较差异具有统计学意义(P0.05)。流式细胞技术结果显示,水飞蓟宾低、中、高浓度组凋亡细胞比例分别为16.93±2.34%、26.20±2.21%和37.93±1.98%,与对照组(1.43±0.72%)相比差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。Hoechst染色结果显示,水飞蓟宾低、中、高浓度组凋亡细胞比例分别为12.56±2.55%、25.73±2.05%和39.14±3.69%,与对照组(0.54±0.67%)相比差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。此外,水飞蓟宾可以升高bax基因表达水平,降低bcl-2基因表达平。结论:水飞蓟宾能明显抑制HO-8910细胞增殖,促进细胞凋亡,通过改变凋亡因子表达诱导卵巢癌HO-8910细胞凋亡。     

多糖的化学修饰对其生物活性影响研究进展

多糖是重要的药用活性成分,将其结构进行化学修饰,得到的修饰后多糖有可能具有较修饰前更高的活性或者产生新的活性。本文对这一方面进行研究,阐述了硫酸化、磷酸化、羧甲基化、烷基化、乙酰化等化学修饰方法对多糖生物活性的影响,并对多糖化学修饰应用前景加以展望。     

Bioavailability of silymarin flavonolignans: drug formulations and biotransformation

Over the past years, great advances have been made on the development of novel delivery systems for bioactive natural compounds, in parallel to their structural modification via chemical, chemo-enzymatic and enzymatic methodologies. These approaches give rise to novel formulations and derivatives that often display advantages over the parental molecule, such as enhanced bioavailability and pharmacological activity, due to improved dissolution and stability. Silymarin components suffer from poor solubility in water and lipid media and their resorption in the intestine is rather limited. Moreover, silybin undergoes intensive Phase II metabolism and is rapidly excreted in bile and urine, leading to low therapeutic efficacy. This work aims to present the current status of available silymarin formulations, and to highlight successful efforts for the biotransformation of its constituent flavonolignans towards the synthesis of novel derivatives. Herein, various pharmaceutical formulations that aim at the bioavailability improvement of these fascinating phytochemicals, i.e., liposomes, phytosomes, self-microemulsifying drug delivery systems, solid dispersions systems, dripping pills, nanosuspensions, floating tablets, and micronization, are reviewed. Silybin (semi)synthetic derivatives prepared by chemical or enzymatic methods, such as fatty acid conjugates, silybin bishemisuccinate, silybin glycosides, silybin sulfates, silybinic acid, and 2,3-dehydrosilybin, are also discussed in detail. Additionally, this work attempts to direct the attention towards the pharmacological implications of optically pure silybin A and silybin B and their biotransformation reactions, both Phase I and II, in relation to bioavailability.     

Effect of silybin and its glycosides on the expression of cytochromes P450 1A2 and 3A4 in primary cultures of human hepatocytes

Four beta-glycosides of flavonoligan silybin, i.e. silybin beta-galactoside, silybin beta-glucoside, silybin beta-maltoside, silybin beta-lactoside were synthesized in order to improve silybin water solubility and bioavailability (Kren et al., J Chem Soc, Perkin Trans 1, 2467-2474, 1997). The presented paper deals with the effect of silybin and its synthetic beta-glycosides on the expression of two major cytochrome P450 isoforms, CYP1A2 and CYP3A4. Primary cultures of human hepatocytes were the model of choice. mRNAs were analyzed using Northern blot and P-radiolabelled probes. CYP protein content was determined by immunoblotting using specific antibodies. Silybin and its beta-glycosides do not induce expression of CYP1A2 and CYP3A4. Tested compounds did not affect inducible expression of CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 by dioxin and rifampicin, respectively, as evaluated at the level of mRNAs and proteins. Silybin and its beta-glycosides do not interfere with the expression of CYP1A2 and CYP3A4, are not likely to produce drug-drug interactions in terms of the inducibility of two important cytochromes P450.     

Studies on the Antioxidant and Free Radical Scavenging Properties of Idb 1016 A New Flavanolignan Complex

Silybin has been complexed in 1:1 ratio with phosphatidyl choline to give IdB 1016 in order to increase its bioavailability. The antioxidant and free radical scavenger action of this new form of silybin has beenn evaluated.

One hour after the intragastric administration to rats of IdB 1016 (1.5g/kg b.wt.) the concentration of silybin in the liver microsomes was estimated to be around 2.5°g/mg protein corresponding to a final concentration in the microsomal suspension used of about 10°M. At these levels IdB decreased by about 40% the lipid peroxidation induced in microsomes by NADPH, CC1₄ and cumene hydroperoxide, probably by acting on lipid derived radicals. Spin trapping experiments showed, in fact, that the complexed form of silybin was able to scavenge lipid dienyl radicals generated in the microsomal membranes. In addition, IdB 1016 was also found to interact with free radical intermediates produced during the metabolic activation of carbon tetrachloride and methylhydrazine.

These effects indicate IdB 1016 as a potentially protective agent against free radical-mediated toxic damage.     

Studies on the Antioxidant and Free Radical Scavenging Properties of Idb 1016 A New Flavanolignan Complex

Silybin has been complexed in 1:1 ratio with phosphatidyl choline to give IdB 1016 in order to increase its bioavailability. The antioxidant and free radical scavenger action of this new form of silybin has beenn evaluated.

One hour after the intragastric administration to rats of IdB 1016 (1.5g/kg b.wt.) the concentration of silybin in the liver microsomes was estimated to be around 2.5°g/mg protein corresponding to a final concentration in the microsomal suspension used of about 10°M. At these levels IdB decreased by about 40% the lipid peroxidation induced in microsomes by NADPH, CC1₄ and cumene hydroperoxide, probably by acting on lipid derived radicals. Spin trapping experiments showed, in fact, that the complexed form of silybin was able to scavenge lipid dienyl radicals generated in the microsomal membranes. In addition, IdB 1016 was also found to interact with free radical intermediates produced during the metabolic activation of carbon tetrachloride and methylhydrazine.

These effects indicate IdB 1016 as a potentially protective agent against free radical-mediated toxic damage.     

Microbial transformation of silybin by Trichoderma koningii

Microbial transformation of silybin A (1) and silybin B (2), the major hepatoprotective flavonolignan diastereomers from the fruits of Silybum marianum, with the culture broth of Trichoderma koningii gave two pairs of glucosylated derivatives. Their structures were identified as silybin A 3-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside (3), silybin A 7-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside (4), silybin B 3-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside (5) and silybin B 7-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside (6) by spectroscopic methods.     

Anti-Cancer Efficacy of Silybin Derivatives - A Structure-Activity Relationship

Silybin or silibinin, a flavonolignan isolated from Milk thistle seeds, is one of the popular dietary supplements and has been extensively studied for its antioxidant, hepatoprotective and anti-cancer properties. We have envisioned that potency of silybin could be further enhanced through suitable modification/s in its chemical structure. Accordingly, here, we synthesized and characterized a series of silybin derivatives namely 2,3-dehydrosilybin (DHS), 7-O-methylsilybin (7OM), 7-O-galloylsilybin (7OG), 7,23-disulphatesilybin (DSS), 7-O-palmitoylsilybin (7OP), and 23-O-palmitoylsilybin (23OP); and compared their anti-cancer efficacy using human bladder cancer HTB9, colon cancer HCT116 and prostate carcinoma PC3 cells. In all the 3 cell lines, DHS, 7OM and 7OG demonstrated better growth inhibitory effects and compared to silybin, while other silybin derivatives showed lesser or no efficacy. Next, we prepared the optical isomers (A and B) of silybin, DHS, 7OM and 7OG, and compared their anti-cancer efficacy. Isomers of these three silybin derivatives also showed better efficacy compared with respective silybin isomers, but in each, there was no clear cut silybin A versus B isomer activity preference. Further studies in HTB cells found that DHS, 7OM and 7OG exert better apoptotic activity than silibinin. Clonogenic assays in HTB9 cells further confirmed that both the racemic mixtures as well as pure optical isomers of DHS, 7OM and 7OG were more effective than silybin. Overall, these results clearly suggest that the anti-cancer efficacy of silybin could be significantly enhanced through structural modifications, and identify strong anti-cancer efficacy of silybin derivatives, namely DHS, 7OM, and 7OG, signifying that their efficacy and toxicity should be evaluated in relevant pre-clinical cancer models in rodents.     

Structure prerequisite for antioxidant activity of silybin in different biochemical systems in vitro.

Structural analogues (flavanone: 2-4 and flavone: 5 and 6, respectively) of silybin (1a) were synthesized and tested for inhibitory activity on O(2)(-) release and PKC translocation in PMA-stimulated neutrophils as well as xanthine oxidase activity in order to identify the molecular structures responsible for the antioxidant property of silybin. Concerning the prevention of hem-mediated oxidative modification of LDL by silybin, the hydroxyl radical scavenging activity of its structural analogues was also determined. We demonstrated that the basic skeleton of 1a (4) is responsible for its inhibitory activity on O(2)(-) release in PMA-stimulated neutrophils via inhibition of PKC translocation, since introduction of a double bound and hydroxyl groups at C-5 and C-7 position (5 and 6) did not result in further increase in inhibition of O(2)(-) release. It has been shown that the presence of the phenolic hydroxyl group at C-5 and C-7 of 1a is essential for the inhibition of xanthine oxidase activity. Moreover, introduction of a double bond into the C-ring of 2 and 3, resulting in flavone derivatives (5 and 6), markedly enhanced the antioxidant effect in all the tested systems. Finally, silybin (1a) and its flavon derivatives (5 and 6) directly scavenged hydroxyl radicals as well. On the basis of these results it might be concluded that different moiety of silybin is responsible for inhibition of overproduction of O(2)(-) in stimulated neutrophils, xanthine oxidase activity, and for prevention of hem-mediated oxidative modification of LDL.     

Silybin and silymarin--new effects and applications

This article aims to review critically literature published mainly within this millennium on the new and emerging applications of silymarin, the polyphenolic fraction from the seeds of Silybum marianum and its main component silybin. Silymarin and silybin used so far mostly as hepatoprotectants were shown to have other interesting activities as e.g., anticancer and canceroprotective. These activities were demonstrated in a large variety of illnesses of different organs as e.g., prostate, lungs, CNS, kidneys, pancreas and others. Besides the cytoprotective activity of silybin mediated by its antioxidative and radical-scavenging properties also new activities based on the specific receptor interaction were discovered--e.g., inhibition and modulation of drug transporters, P-glycoproteins, estrogenic receptors, nuclear receptors and some others. New derivatives of silybin open new ways to its therapeutic applications. Pharmacology dealing with optically pure silybin diastereomers may suggest new mechanisms of its action.     

Free radical scavenging reactions and antioxidant activities of silybin: Mechanistic aspects and pulse radiolytic studies

Silybin (extracted from Silybum marianum) is the major active constituent of silymarin which possesses a wide range of medicinal properties. These properties may be, in part, due to the potent scavenging capacity of oxidizing free radicals. In this context, scavenging radicals (hydroxyl, azide, dibromide anion radicals, nitrite, carbonate, etc.) of silybin have been studied to understand the mechanistic aspects of its action against free radicals. The transients produced in these reactions have been assigned and the rate constants have been measured by pulse radiolysis techniques. Reduction potential determined both by cyclic voltammetry gave a value 0.62±0.02 V vs NHE at pH 9. Quantum chemical calculations have been performed to further confirm the different activities of individual hydroxyl groups with the difference of heat of formation. Moreover, silybin also protected plasmid pUC18 DNA from soft X-ray radiation which induced strand breaks. These results are expected to be helpful for a better understanding of the anti-oxidative properties of silybin.     

Enzymatic preparation of silybin phase II metabolites: sulfation using aryl sulfotransferase from rat liver

Aryl sulfotransferase IV (AstIV) from rat liver was overexpressed in Escherichia coli and purified to homogeneity. Using the produced mammalian liver enzyme, sulfation—the Phase II conjugation reaction—of optically pure silybin diastereoisomers (silybin A and B) was tested. As a result, silybin B was sulfated yielding 20-O-silybin B sulfate, whereas silybin A was completely resistant to the sulfation reaction. Milligram-scale sulfation of silybin B was optimized employing resting E. coli cells producing AstIV, thus avoiding the use of expensive 3′-phosphoadenosine-5′-phosphate cofactor and laborious enzyme purification. Using this approach, we were able to reach 48 % conversion of silybin B into its 20-sulfate within 24 h. The sulfated product was isolated by solid phase extraction and its structure was characterized by HRMS and NMR. Sulfation reaction of silybin appeared strictly stereoselective; only silybin B was sulfated by AstIV.