Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Tat-dependent activation of translation in Xenopus oocytes by the benzodiazepine Ro24-7429 requires trans-activation response element loop sequences.

Two benzodiazepine compounds, [7-chloro-5-(2-pyrryl)-3H-1,4 benzodiazapin-2-(H)-one] (Ro5-3335) and [7-chloro-5-(1H-pyrrol-2-yl)-3H-benzo[e] [1,4] diazepin-2-yl]- methylamine (Ro24-7429), inhibit human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) replication via a specific effect on the function of the transactivator protein, Tat. To gain further insight into the mechanism of action of these compounds, we have tested their effects in an alternative assay for Tat activation in Xenopus oocytes. In this system, translation of trans-activation response element (TAR)-containing RNA is activated by Tat. Both compounds specifically blocked activation of translation in a dose-dependent fashion, with Ro24-7429 showing the greater potency. In the Xenopus oocyte system, as in mammalian cells, mutation of the TAR loop sequences abolishes Tat action. However, it is possible to obtain TAR-specific, Tat-dependent activation of a target RNA with a mutation in the loop provided that this target is in large excess. This result has been interpreted as indicating that a negative factor has been titrated (M. Braddock, R. Powell, A.D. Blanchard, A.J. Kingsman, and S.M. Kingsman, FASEB J. 7:214-222, 1993). Interestingly Ro24-7429 was unable to inhibit the TAR-specific but loop sequence-independent mode of translational activation. This finding suggests that a specific loop-binding cellular factor may mediate the effects of this inhibitor of Tat action. Consistent with this notion, we could not detect any effect of Ro24-7429 on the efficiency of specific Tat binding to TAR in vitro.     

A human chromosome 12-associated 83-kilodalton cellular protein specifically binds to the loop region of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 trans-activation response element RNA.

trans activation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) involves the viral trans-activator protein (Tat) and a cellular factor(s) encoded on human chromosome 12 (HuChr12) that targets the trans-activation response element (TAR) in the viral long terminal repeat. Because nascent TAR RNA is predicted to form a secondary structure that specifically binds cellular proteins, we investigated the composition of the TAR RNA-protein complex for HuChr12-specific proteins. UV cross-linking of TAR RNA-nuclear protein complexes formed in vitro identified an 83-kDa protein in human cells and in a human-hamster hybrid cell containing only HuChr12. The 83-kDa TAR RNA-binding protein was absent in the parental hamster cells. TAR RNA mutations that inhibited binding of the 83-kDa protein in vitro also inhibited HuChr12-dependent Tat trans activation. These TAR mutations changed the native sequence or secondary structure of the TAR loop. The TAR RNA binding activity of the 83-kDa protein also correlated with a HuChr12-dependent increase in steady-state HIV-1 RNA expression during Tat trans activation. Our results suggest that either a species-specific 83-kDa TAR RNA loop-binding protein is directly encoded on HuChr12 or a HuChr12 protein(s) induces the expression of an 83-kDa TAR-binding protein in nonprimate cells.     

Trans-dominant Tat mutants with alterations in the basic domain inhibit HIV-1 gene expression

The Tat protein of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is required for efficient viral gene expression. By means of mutational analyses, several domains of the Tat protein that are required for complete activation of HIV-1 gene expression have been defined. These include an amino-terminal activating domain, a cysteine-rich dimerization domain, and a basic domain important in the binding of Tat to the trans-activation response element (TAR) and in Tat nuclear localization. Recently, we described a mutation, known as delta tat, which resulted in a protein with a truncated basic domain. This protein had a "trans-dominant" phenotype in that it inhibited wild-type Tat activation of the HIV-1 LTR. To further characterize the requirements for generating a Tat trans-dominant phenotype, we constructed a variety of Tat proteins with truncations or substitutions in the basic domain. A number of these proteins showed a trans-dominant phenotype. These Tat mutants also inhibited activation of the HIV-1 LTR by a protein composed of Tat fused to the prokaryotic R17 (phage MS2) RNA-binding protein in which the R17 recognition element was inserted in the HIV-1 LTR in place of TAR. Thus, an intact TAR element was not required for this inhibition. We also studied the cellular localization of Tat and a trans-dominant Tat mutant by means of immunofluorescence staining with the use of antibodies reactive to different domains of the Tat protein. The results indicated that Tat becomes localized predominantly in the nucleus both in the presence and absence of the trans-dominant Tat construct, suggesting that the trans-dominant mutant does not inhibit Tat nuclear localization. These studies further define the requirements for the creation of trans-dominant Tat mutants, and suggest that the mechanism of trans-dominant Tat inhibition may be either the formation of an inactive complex between wild-type and mutant Tat or sequestration of cellular factors involved in regulating HIV-1 gene expression.     

Kinetics of HIV-1 long terminal repeat trans-activation. Use of intragenic ribozyme to assess rate-limiting steps.

We have examined, using self-cleaving ribozymes, the intracellular trans-activation kinetics of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) long terminal repeat (LTR) by viral protein Tat. Experiments were designed to effect a competition (during RNA chain elongation) between cleavage of a nascent RNA containing the Tat-responsive target sequence (TAR) and Tat interaction with the same TAR in the process of LTR-trans-activation. We found that fast self-cleavage of nascent TAR-containing RNA abolished Tat trans-activation. Slowing the cleavage reaction kinetically rescued trans-activation. Based on our results, we conclude that the rate-limiting step in HIV-1 LTR trans-activation is the initial contact made between Tat/TAR/LTR rather than the promoter proximal pausing of RNA polymerases that are tethered to functional TAR.     

Juxtaposition between activation and basic domains of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Tat is required for optimal interactions between Tat and TAR.

trans activation of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 long terminal repeat requires that the viral trans activator Tat interact with the trans-acting responsive region (TAR) RNA. Although the N-terminal 47 amino acids represent an independent activation domain that functions via heterologous nucleic acid-binding proteins, sequences of Tat that are required for interactions between Tat and TAR in cells have not been defined. Although in vitro binding studies suggested that the nine basic amino acids from positions 48 to 57 in Tat bind efficiently to the 5' bulge in the TAR RNA stem-loop, by creating several mutants of Tat and new hybrid proteins between Tat and the coat protein of bacteriophage R17, we determined that this arginine-rich domain is not sufficient for interactions between Tat and TAR in vivo. Rather, the activation domain is also required and must be juxtaposed to the basic domain. Thus, in vitro TAR RNA binding does not translate to function in vivo, which suggests that other proteins are important for specific and productive interactions between Tat and TAR.