Comparative assessment of the ischial morphology of Victoriapithecus macinnesi

An almost complete primate ischium was recovered from middle Miocene (ca. 15 ma) deposits of Maboko Island (Kenya) in 1987. The specimen shows numerous similarities to the ischial morphology of extant cercopithecids and is attributed to Victoriapithecus macinnesi (Von Koenigswald, 1969), the early Old World monkey best known from Maboko Island. The Victoriapithecus ischium provides the first evidence of early Old World monkey pelvic girdle anatomy. The ischium is characterized by an obliquely oriented and broadly flaring tuberosity, a relatively small acetabulum with little ventrally directed curvature of its caudal portion, a long ischial body and a flange-like ischial spine positioned caudal to the rim of the acetabulum. In these features, Victoriapithecus most closely resembles the vervet monkey, Cercopithecus aethiops. The fossil specimen indicates that Victoriapithecus possessed ischial callosities, a mobile tail and adaptations for (possibly cursorial) quadrupedalism with an adducted posture of the thigh. The occurrence of ischial callosities in Victoriapithecus extends the documented antiquity of this feature in catarrhines by more than 12 million years and shows that the distinctive “sitting-sleeping” adaptations of Old World monkeys (Washburn, 1957) originated prior to the divergence of Colobinae and Cercopithecinae. Differences of developmental sequence and tissue composition indicate that the ischial pads of cercopithecids, hylobatids, and pongids may have arisen independently, through parallel evolution. Contrary to Strasser and Delson (1987), discontinuity of ischial callosities was probably the primitive condition for male cercopithecids.     

Chloroplast DNA restriction site variation in theVernonieae (Asteraceae), an initial appraisal of the relationship of New and Old World taxa and the monophyly ofVernonia

Chloroplast DNA restriction site variation was examined for 35 taxa in theVernonieae and four outgroup tribes, using 17 restriction enzymes mapped for ca. 900 restriction sites per species; 139 mutations were found to be phylogenetically informative. Phylogenetic trees were constructed using Wagner and weighted parsimony, and evaluated by bootstrap and decay analyses. Relationships of Old and New World taxa indicate complex geographical relationships; there was no clear geographic separation by hemisphere. The relationships between Old and New World Vernonias found here support prior morphological analyses. The sister group to all New and most Old World taxa was composed of a small group of Old World species including yellow-flowered, trinervate-leaved species previously postulated to be basal in the tribe. The majority of both New and Old World taxa are derived from a lineage beginning with the monotypic genusStokesia, an endemic of the southeastern United States. The genusVernonia was also found to be paraphyletic within both the New and Old World. Available data do not support either the separation ofVernonia or the tribeVernonieae into geographically distinct lineages. The pattern of relationships within theVernonieae for taxa from North America, Asia, Africa, Central and South America is most similar to that of several other groups of both plants and animals with a boreotropical origin, rather than an origin in Gondwanaland. Such a pattern of distribution suggests more ancient vicariant events than are routinely postulated for theAsteraceae.     

Evidence for Gondwanan vicariance in an ancient clade of gecko lizards

Aim Geckos (Reptilia: Squamata), due to their great age and global distribution, are excellent candidates to test hypotheses of Gondwanan vicariance against post‐Gondwanan dispersal. Our aims are: to generate a phylogeny of the sphaerodactyl geckos and their closest relatives; evaluate previous phylogenetic hypotheses of the sphaerodactyl geckos with regard to the other major gecko lineages; and to use divergence date estimates to inform a biogeographical scenario regarding Gondwanan relationships and assess the roles of vicariance and dispersal in shaping the current distributions of the New World sphaerodactyl geckos and their closest Old World relatives. Location Africa, Asia, Europe, South America, Atlantic Ocean. Methods We used parsimony and partitioned Bayesian methods to analyse data from five nuclear genes to generate a phylogeny for the New World sphaerodactyl geckos and their close Old World relatives. We used dispersal–vicariance analysis to determine ancestral area relationships among clades, and divergence times were estimated from the phylogeny using nonparametric rate smoothing. Results We recovered a monophyletic group containing the New World sphaerodactyl genera, Coleodactylus, Gonatodes, Lepidoblepharis, Pseudogonatodes and Sphaerodactylus, and the Old World Gekkotan genera Aristelliger, Euleptes, Quedenfeldtia, Pristurus, Saurodactylus and Teratoscincus. The dispersal–vicariance analysis indicated that the ancestral area for this clade was North Africa and surrounding regions. The divergence between the New World spaherodactyl geckos and their closest Old World relative was estimated to have occurred c. 96 Myr bp . Main conclusions Here we provide the first molecular genetic phylogenetic hypothesis of the New World sphaerodactyl geckos and their closest Old World relatives. A combination of divergence date estimates and dispersal–vicariance analysis informed a biogeographical scenario indicating that the split between the sphaerodactyl geckos and their African relatives coincided with the Africa/South America split and the opening of the Atlantic Ocean. We resurrect the family name Sphaerodactylidae to represent the expanded sphaerodactyl clade.     

Allopolyploidy in the Thalloid Liverwort Corsinia (Marchantiales)

The thalloid liverwort Corsinia coriandrina includes morphologically similar haploid and polyploid populations with an allopatric geographical distribution. Haploid and polyploid colonies of the Old World, and one polyploid colony from Texas have been analysed. The polyploid, monoecious cytotype has a wider geographical range and ecological tolerance than the haploid, dioecious cytotype which appears to be restricted to southern Europe and Macaronesia. Similarity coefficients between the two Old World cytotypes based on isozyme data show them to be more genetically divergent than suggested by their morphology, and to fit the definition of sibling species. Fixed heterozygosity in six of eight enzyme loci suggests an alloploid origin of the Old World polyploids. The haploid cytotype could be one of the putative parents. Alleles in the polyploid that were not detected in the haploid are presumably derived from an unknown progenitor. The polyploid New World colony shows significant genetic divergence; it represents a different allopolyploid sibling species. Accordingly, at least two independent origins of the polyploid must be supposed; one in the Old World; the other in the New World. The presumed autopolyploid origin of polyploid liverworts is once more challenged by our analysis of polyploid Corsinia. Indeed, autopolyploidy has still not been documented conclusively in any polyploid liverwort.     

Genetic evidence supports the new anatolian lupine accession,Lupinus anatolicus, as an old world “rough-seeded” lupine (sectionScabrispermae) related toL. pilosus

A noteworthy wild lupine accession was recently discovered in southwestern Turkey and was proposed as a new separate Old World “smooth-seeded” species close toL. micranthus and namedL. anatolicus. Its species status was controversial with respect to cytological and crossability data. In order to examine the position and the evolutionary relationships of this Anatolian accession relative to the Old World lupines, we investigated new data from seed coat micromorphology, and from internal transcribed spacer (ITS) nucleotide sequences of the nuclear ribosomal DNA repeat. The micromorphological seed coat pattern ofL. anatolicus, as revealed by scanning electron microscopy, is characterized by pluricellular tubercles, which represent the typical and unique pattern of the Old World “rough-seeded” lupines (sect.Scabrispermae). In accordance with the micromorphological results, the genetic distances and phylogenetic relationships among the Old World lupines, estimated from ITS data, unambiguously support the new Anatolian lupine accession as part of theL. pilosus-L. palaestinus lineage within the strongly monophyletic group containing all theScabrispermae. The results provided in this study, together with other lines of data available from the literature, are thus hardly compatible with the hypothesis that this new Anatolian lupine accession could be related to Old World “smooth-seeded” lupines (includingL. micranthus); instead, it appears closely related toL. pilosus.     

New remains of Egatochoerus jaegeri (Mammalia,Suoidea) from the late Eocene of Peninsular Thailand

Abstract: We report here additional remains referred to Egatochoerus jaegeri from the late Eocene locality of Ban Mark in the Krabi basin, Thailand. The new material described, comprising upper and lower cheek teeth, deciduous premolars and partial cranial remains, makes E. jaegeri the best‐documented Eocene representative of Old World Suoidea at present. Detailed study and comparison of their cheek teeth structure reveal a homogeneity of the molar crest and groove patterns of Old World and New World Palaeogene suoids.     

Variation of the number of proximal caudal vertebrae with tail reduction in Old World monkeys

Tail length in primates can vary greatly between species or even between local conspecific populations, and the tail is markedly reduced in several lineages. In Old World monkeys, tail length is considered as an important feature reflecting their phylogeny and adaptations. The number of caudal vertebrae is one of the important factors which determine tail length, and it is known that this number varies with tail length. Caudal vertebrae can be divided into two types (proximal and distal), and tail mobility and function are considered to be different in these two regions. Though the number of vertebrae in each region is important for understanding tail length evolution in Old World monkeys, there have been few attempts to investigate this matter. This study focused only on the proximal caudal vertebrae, which are more easily preserved than the distal ones, and tested if there is variation in their number with tail length or phylogenic differences. As a result, two important findings were obtained: (1) the variation of the number of proximal caudal vertebrae was different among the phylogenic groups, and (2) especially in Papionini, there was a great variation in the number of proximal caudal vertebrae, and it correlated strongly with relative tail length [RTL = (tail length/head and body length (sitting height)) × 100 %]. I speculate that these variations in the number of proximal caudal vertebrae were possibly caused by a change of the embryonic developmental mechanism of tail morphogenesis, a common mechanism of morphological evolution. To clarify the mechanisms and evolutionary trends of the variation in the proximal caudal vertebrae, not only morphological approaches but also developmental biological approaches will be necessary in the future.     

Sorting out the Snakebirds: The species status,phylogeny, and biogeography of the Darters (Aves: Anhingidae)

Although the avian family Anhingidae is unequivocally monophyletic, the number and relationships of the component species within the single genus (Anhinga) have long remained unclear. Here, we use extensive mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequence data (8,878 bp) to show that four species should be recognized. Our fully resolved and well‐supported tree shows that the American Anhinga (Anhinga anhinga) is sister to the three Old World species, with the Oriental (A. melanogaster) and African (A. rufa) Darters sister within the Old World clade, which also includes the Australian Darter (A. novaehollandiae). We estimate that the divergence between the New World and Old World branches occurred 19–22 mya, with the Australian Darter separating from its Old World congeners 14–16 mya and the Oriental and African species splitting ~10 mya. The genus is yet another example of osteological conservatism in the Suliformes, which is comparable to that shown by the cormorants and shags. Nevertheless, the relationships we infer are congruent with recent plumage studies and are biogeographically plausible. We suggest that further investigation of the variation within the African and Australian Darters would be of interest.     

Biomechanical scaling of mandibular dimensions in New World Monkeys

Previous studies show that folivorous Old World monkeys have shorter, deeper mandibles and shorter, wider condyles than frugivorous ones. These morphologies have been related to leaf mastication in colobines and ingestion of large, tough fruits in cercopithecines. This study examines New World monkeys in order to determine whether they exhibit similar adaptations to diet. New World monkeys have relatively long, transversely thin mandibles and somewhat deep mandibles and narrow condyles. Except for their deep mandibles, folivorous New World monkeys (i.e., Alouatta) do not exhibit the mandibular and condylar specializations typical of cercopithecid folivores. Reliance on comparatively nonfibrous foods plus alterations in masticatory muscle ratios among New World monkeys partially accounts for observed differences between folivorous New and Old World monkeys. In addition, adaptations for howling in Alouatta appear to have a significant effect on mandibular morphology. A biomechanical interpretation of craniofacial scaling patterns suggests that the mandibles of New World monkeys are subjected to lower condylar loads and considerably less twisting of the mandibular corpus than those of comparable Old World monkeys.     

Phylogenetic implications of comparative primate growth rates

Growth data from a number of species of Old and New World primates have been analyzed by calculating instantaneous relative growth rates. Species discussed are the New World species Saimiri sciureus and Saguinus nigricollis, and the Old World species Pan troglodytes and Macaca mulatta. The analysis of the perinatal growth data indicated that differences in relative growth rates are present during early periods of growth. More specifically, it was found that the closer taxonomically a species is to man the greater the deceleration of growth during the first postnatal year. It is suggested that this may be a general primate trend.     

Molecular archeology of an SP100 splice variant revisited: dating the retrotranscription and Alu insertion events

Background  

SP100 is a nuclear protein that displays a number of alternative splice variants. In Old World monkeys, apes and humans one of these variants is extended by a retroprocessed pseudogene, HMG1L3, whose antecedent gene is a member of the family of high-mobility-group proteins, HMG1. This is one of only a few documented cases of a retropseudogene being incorporated into another gene as a functional exon. In addition to the HMG1L3 insertion, Old World monkey genomes also contain an Alu sequence within the last SP100-HMG intron. PCR amplification of the 3' end of the SP100 gene using genomic DNAs from human and New World and Old World monkey species, followed by direct sequencing of the amplicons has made dating the HMG1L3 and Alu insertion events possible.     

Repeated trans-Atlantic dispersal catalysed a global songbird radiation

Aim Turdus thrushes are one of the most speciose and widespread songbird genera, comprising nearly 70 species that combined have a near‐global distribution. Herein, we use molecular phylogenetic, molecular clock and behavioural evidence to examine the historical biogeography of the genus. Ancestral area reconstructions in conjunction with divergence estimates and palaeoclimatogical data are used to test whether the long‐standing paradigm of Beringian colonization or trans‐Atlantic dispersal best explains modern distributions in the New and Old Worlds. Location Worldwide, with emphasis on New World–Old World biotic interchange. Methods Using a molecular phylogenetic hypothesis of Turdus thrushes, we reconstructed ancestral area relationships utilizing the five major continental or regional areas occupied by species in the genus. We also examined the evolution of behaviours on the phylogeny, and estimated the timing of major lineage divergences via a molecular clock. Results Turdus originated in Eurasia, and following the colonization of Africa underwent a series of five trans‐Atlantic sweepstake dispersals. The data reject the alternative hypothesis that connections between Old and New World Turdus species can be attributed to movement through Beringia with subsequent extinction. Divergence estimates indicate that these dispersals all occurred near the Miocene–Pliocene boundary, 5 Ma. A significant phylogenetic correlation between migratory and flocking behaviour is evident in the genus. Main conclusions The initial divergence of Turdus in the Old World was followed by a series of trans‐Atlantic sweepstake dispersal events. These dispersals are temporally correlated with a specific palaeoclimatic system, which would have facilitated transport of Turdus from the Caribbean to the Old World across the Atlantic. Uplift of the Central American Seaway 4.7 Ma effectively shut down the palaeoclimatic system, and no additional trans‐Atlantic dispersals are evident in Turdus after this time. Migratory movements by ancestral lineages in flocks, rather than as single individuals, suggest an increased likelihood of successfully colonizing new areas, post‐dispersal.     

CHROMOSOME NUMBERS AND EVOLUTION IN NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF LINUM

Among the North American species of Linum there are three basic chromosome numbers representing invasions from the Old World of three distinct evolutionary lines. N = 9 is found only in the blue-flowered group represented in North America by two species, L. lewisii and L. pratense which are closely related to and may be conspecific with the Old World L. perenne. The basic number for the yellow-flowered species is n = 18 which is characteristic of the Scabrella and Virginiana subgroups. The loss of chromosomes in the Neo-mexicana (n = 13) and Sulcata-Rigida (n = 15) subgroups suggests that the basic haploid number of 18 might be a polyploid derivative of an Old World ancestor with n = 9. The incidence of n = 9 among Old World species of Linum may indicate that this represents an ancestral condition. Linum catharticum has n = 8; this number and features of morphology and distribution suggest that it is not directly related to either the blue-flowered or yellow-flowered groups in North America but represents a separate introduction on this continent.     

Glutathione metabolism in primate lenses: A phylogenetic study of glutathione synthesis and glutathione redox cycle enzyme activities

Lens wet weights, soluble protein, and activities of γ-glutiamylcysteine synthetase, glutathione synthetase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase were determined in primate lenses. The primary sources of lenses were middle-aged adult animals. The Primates, from 23 genera, were categorized into six superfamilies: hominoids (five species), Old World monkeys (seven species), New World monkeys (five species), tarsiers (two species), lemurs (six species), and lorisids (three species). Significant differences between various groups or combinations of groups were noted for γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase activities. Lenticular γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase activity was very low in the Old World simian lenses and highest in the prosimians. Glutathione peroxidase activity was extraordinarily high in lenses of Old World monkeys. Glutathione reductase activity was low in all the prosimians but tenfold higher in hominoid lenses with intermediate values in monkeys of both the Old World and New World. Glutathione synthetase activity was variable, and no clear pattern which might be useful for primate classification was noted. Lenticular activity ratios of glutathione synthetase:γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase were highest in the Old World simians and lowest in the prosimians. These data with emphasis upon Aotus and the tarsiers were examined with regard to phylogenetic relationships. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Tropical Asian species show that the Old World clade of ‘spiny solanums’ (Solanum subgenus Leptostemonum pro parte: Solanaceae) is not monophyletic

The tropical Asian taxa of the species‐rich genus Solanum (Solanaceae) have been less well studied than their highly diverse New World relatives. Most of these tropical Asian species, including the cultivated brinjal eggplant/aubergine and its wild progenitor, are part of the largest monophyletic Solanum lineage, the ‘spiny solanums’ (subgenus Leptostemonum or the Leptostemonum clade). Here we present the first phylogenetic analysis of spiny solanums that includes broad sampling of the tropical Asian species, with 42 of the 56 currently recognized species represented. Two nuclear and three plastid regions [internal transcribed spacer (ITS), waxy, ndhF‐rpL32, trnS‐trnG and trnT‐trnF] were amplified and used to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships using maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods. Our analyses show that Old World spiny solanums do not resolve in a single clade, but are part of three unrelated lineages, suggesting at least three independent introductions from the New World. We identify and describe several monophyletic groups in Old World solanums that have not been previously recognized. Some of these lineages are coherent in terms of morphology and geography, whereas others show considerable morphological variation and enigmatic distribution patterns. Tropical Asia occupies a key position in the biogeography of Old World spiny solanums, with tropical Asian taxa resolved as the closest relatives of diverse groups of species from Australia and Africa.     

Phylogeny of the tribe Antirrhineae (Scrophulariaceae) based on morphological andndhF sequence data

Phylogenetic relationships within the tribe Antirrhineae (Scrophulariaceae) are analysed and discussed on the basis of parsimony analyses of morphological andndhF gene sequence data. The results indicate that the tribe Antirrhineae consists of four major groups of genera, theAnarrhinum clade, theGambelia clade, theMaurandya clade, and theAntirrhinum clade. TheAnarrhinum clade, consisting of the Old World bee-pollinated generaAnarrhinum andKickxia, is sister to the rest of the tribe. TheGambelia clade consists of the New World generaGambelia andGalvezia, which are very closely related and pollinated by hummingbirds. TheMaurandya clade consists of one subclade includingMaurandya and a number of related bee- or hummingbird-pollinated New World genera and another subclade with the Old World bee-pollinated generaAsarina andCymbalaria. TheAntirrhinum clade consists mainly of bee-pollinated Old World genera, such asAntirrhinum, Linaria, Chaenorhinum, and their segregates, but also includes the New World generaMohavea andHowelliella, of which the latter is known to be partly pollinated by hummingbirds. It is concluded that hummingbirdpollination has evolved independently within Antirrhineae at least three times from bee-pollinated ancestors.     

Sunbird hovering behavior is determined by both the forager and resource plant

The long‐standing paradigm that pollination systems adapted to hovering birds evolved only in the New World was recently challenged by the discovery of hovering pollination by Old World specialized passerine pollinators. This raises the possibility that hovering pollination may evolve more easily than previously believed, given sufficient selective pressure on plant traits, on nectarivory, or both. We observed foraging behavior by the sunbird Cyanomitra oritis at flowers of the native Old World plant Impatiens sakeriana. We measured the length of pedicels and peduncles (PedPed length), which can make the flowers difficult to reach while the bird perches on the stem, and determined if it influenced sunbird hovering or perching at a flower. Detailed analyses of video recordings showed that sunbirds only hovered at flowers with a long PedPed, whereas they employed both foraging modes when an adequate perch was available. A hovering sunbird could deplete nectar in a shorter time than a perching one. The frequency of visits was not greater at flowers with longer PedPed or with more open I. sakeriana flowers in the vicinity. Our study provides evidence that sunbird behavior does not follow simple energetic models, and that some sunbird pollination systems in the Old World resemble highly specialized hummingbird systems in the New World much more than expected, especially the overall adaptation of the system to bird hovering.     

Dynamic colonization exchanges between continents and islands drive diversification in paradise‐flycatchers (Terpsiphone,Monarchidae)

Aim We use parametric biogeographical reconstruction based on an extensive DNA sequence dataset to characterize the spatio‐temporal pattern of colonization of the Old World monarch flycatchers (Monarchidae). We then use this framework to examine the role of dispersal and colonization in their evolutionary diversification and to compare plumages between island and continental Terpsiphone species. Location Africa, Asia and the Indian Ocean. Methods We generate a DNA sequence dataset of 2300 bp comprising one nuclear and three mitochondrial markers for 89% (17/19) of the Old World Monarchidae species and 70% of the Terpsiphone subspecies. By applying maximum likelihood and Bayesian phylogenetic methods and implementing a Bayesian molecular clock to provide a temporal framework, we reveal the evolutionary history of the group. Furthermore, we employ both Lagrange and Bayes‐ Lagrange analyses to assess ancestral areas at each node of the phylogeny. By combining the ancestral area reconstruction with information on plumage traits we are able to compare patterns of plumage evolution on islands and continents. Results We provide the first comprehensive molecular phylogenetic reconstruction for the Old World Monarchidae. Our phylogenetic results reveal a relatively recent diversification associated with several dispersal events within this group. Moreover, ancestral area analyses reveal an Asian origin of the Indian Ocean and African clades. Ancestral state reconstruction analyses of plumage characters provide an interpretation of the plumage differentiation on islands and continents. Ancestral plumage traits are inferred to be close to those of the Asian paradise‐flycatcher (Terpsiphone paradisi), and island species display a high degree of plumage autapomorphy compared with continental species. Main conclusions Terpsiphone paradisi is polyphyletic and comprises populations that have retained the ancestral plumage of the widespread Terpsiphone genus. The genus appears to have colonized south‐west Asia, the Indian Ocean and Africa from eastern Asia. The phylogeny and divergence time estimates indicate multiple simultaneous colonizations of the western Old World by Terpsiphone. These results reinforce a hypothesis of range expansions of a Terpsiphone paradisi‐like ancestor into eastern Asia and the western Old World.     

TWO NEW GENERA OF BRAZILIAN BAMBOOS RELATED TO GUADUA (POACEAE: BAMBUSOIDEAE: BAMBUSEAE)

Of all the genera of woody bamboos described from America, only three have pseudospikelets—Atractantha, Elytrostachys, and Guadua. The former two have pseudospikelets with an elongated rachilla internode that precedes the floret, making it pedicellate; they also share a type of leaf anatomy that separates them from the latter. The two new genera herein described, Criciuma and Eremocaulon, show most similarity to species of Guadua, both in spikelet morphology and in leaf anatomy. The study of these new taxa has helped to clarify the limits of New World genera with pseudospikelets and strengthened the case for maintaining Guadua as a genus distinct from its Old World counterpart, Bambusa. We are now able to discern a New World line of bamboos that includes Criciuma, Eremocaulon, and Guadua, separate from an Old World line that includes Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, and several other genera.