Distribution of Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis) in the Inner Himalayan region of Bhutan and their mtDNA diversity

The distributions of Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis) and rhesus macaques (M. mulatta) in Bhutan have been only partially documented. In order to investigate the distribution patterns of these species, we conducted field observation and genetic assessment with mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) typing of macaques in the Inner Himalayas of Bhutan. There were 24 sightings of macaque groups, and all were visually identified as Assamese macaques. No groups of rhesus macaques were sighted in this survey area, in contrast with the survey results in the Nepalese Himalayas. Molecular phylogenetic analysis revealed that the Bhutan macaques are closer in proximity to their counterparts in the Indo-Chinese region (Thailand and Laos) than to rhesus macaques in China, Laos and India. However, clustering results suggested the marked differentiation of the macaques in Bhutan from the Assamese macaques in Indo-China. We tentatively conclude that the macaques of the Inner Himalayan regions in Bhutan are Assamese macaques and that they appear to be of a lineage distinct from Assamese macaques in the Indo-Chinese region (subspecies M. a. assamensis). The degree of mtDNA diversity suggests that the Assamese macaques in Bhutan are of a more ancient ancestry than M. a. assamensis, thereby supporting the speciation hypothesis of the expansion of a sinica-group of macaques from South Asia to Southeast and then to East Asia (Fooden; Fieldiana Zool 45:1–44, 1988). Assignment of Assamese macaques in Bhutan to M. a. pelops is premature due to the lack of molecular data and recent taxonomic controversy. The mtDNA diversity of Assamese macaques was greater than that of rhesus macaques, suggesting the earlier speciation of Assamese macaques. The significance of the ecogeographic segregation model of macaque distribution is discussed in relation to the evolutionary range expansion into the Himalayan regions in South Asia.     

THE OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF ACRASIEAE IN FORESTS OF SUBTROPICAL AND TROPICAL AMERICA

Forests of the subtropical and tropical regions of North America harbor cellular slime molds not found in the soils of temperate deciduous forests investigated previously. However, most species found in the temperate forest are common in the tropics. Although the diversity of forms is greater in the soils of tropical forests the numbers of Acrasieae per unit of soil are comparable. Characteristic of tropical and subtropical forest soils are Acrasieae bearing crampon bases, of which four new species of Dictyostelium are presently known. Also present, but less frequently isolated, are two other new species of the genus Dictyostelium and two still undescribed species of the Guttulinaceae. Occasional isolates of D. purpureum and D. discoideum were found that produce macrocysts, which seem, also, to be confined to tropical and subtropical areas. Macro-cysts were previously known only in D. mucoroides and D. minutum isolated from temperate forest soils. The occurrence and distribution of Acrasieae in warm temperate desert and mesquite-scrub, in subtropical hammock, and in tropical thorn, deciduous, seasonal evergreen, rain, and cloud forests were investigated. Acrasieae were well represented in all of these forests except desert. The number of species and the total populations were largest in seasonal evergreen forests. The composition of the cellular slime mold populations and the dominant species within these populations could be related to the soil environment as expressed by the dominant vegetation.     

Species discrimination and concept formation by rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)

There are 19 species in genusMacaca and some of them are living in sympatry (Fooden, 1980). Although inter-specific hybrids are relatively easy to produce under artificial conditions, hybridization does not occur naturally. What is preventing that among the species of genusMacaca? Three rhesus monkeys acquired a discrimination between pictures with rhesus monkeys and without rhesus monkeys. All subjects showed positive transfer of this discrimination to new pictures with rhesus monkeys and without rhesus monkeys. A further test showed that these monkeys could discriminate between pictures of rhesus monkeys and pictures of Japanese monkeys. The results suggest that rhesus monkeys recognize rhesus monkeys as a class, independent of the actual stimuli such as a picture or an individual monkey. The ability to recognize members of their own species and the opportunities for such learning may be an important factor preventing hybridization among the species of genusMacaca.     

The human Duffy blood group in rhesus monkeys1

There is good evidence that susceptibility to Plasmodium vivax infection and to P. knowlesi erythrocyte invasion is influenced by certain human Duffy (Fy) blood group antigens. Since P. knowlesi readily infects rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatto), it was not surprising to find an Fy-like antigen on rhesus erythrocytes. Using human Fy antisera in elution and absorption experiments, we found that all 40 rhesus monkeys tested displayed the Fy(a-b +) phenotype. Furthermore, the rhesus Fy^bantigen was inactivated by chymotrypsin but not by trypsin, suggesting that it is homologous to the human Fy^bantigen. Preliminary serological analyses and enzyme hydrolysis experiments suggest that none of the 13 blood group systems that we have described in rhesus are analogous to the human Fy system. Thus, it appears that there is no Duffy-like polymorphism in rhesus monkeys.     

Isolation,identification of Streptococcus pneumoniae from infected rhesus monkeys and control efficacy

Background Streptococcus pneumoniae can cause a wide variety of illnesses. Primate animals can be infected by the pneumococcus. A disease occurred among rhesus monkeys in winter 2006. Methods Routine clinical observation, necropsies, bacteriological examinations were conducted, and PCR, pathogenicity to BALB/c mice and antibiotic susceptibility test were examined additionally. Results We conclude that the agent is S. pneumoniae. Based on the antibiotic susceptibility test, a dose of 20 mg/kg body weight daily of Erythromycin was given intramuscular injection for 5 days, resulting in the disappearance of clinical signs, and no newly case reappear be observed till today. Conclusions Therefore, it is suggested that the outbreak of respiratory disease in the rhesus monkeys was because of transmission of S. pneumoniae among rhesus monkeys. The antibiotic therapy finding underscores the utility of Erythromycin to cure the infected rhesus monkeys without causing side effects and without contributing to the further development of antibiotic resistance.     

Quantifying nationwide land cover and historical changes in forests of Nepal (1930–2014): implications on forest fragmentation

This study quantifies the nationwide land cover and long-term changes in forests and its implications on forest fragmentation in Nepal. The multi-source datasets were used to generate the forest cover information for 1930, 1975, 1985, 1995, 2005 and 2014. This study analyzes distribution of land cover, rate of deforestation, changes across forest types, forest canopy density and pattern of fragmentation. The land cover legend for 2014 is consisting of 21 classes: tropical dry deciduous sal forest, tropical moist deciduous sal forest, subtropical broad-leaved forest, subtropical pine forest, lower temperate broad leaved forest, upper temperate broad leaved forest, lower temperate mixed broad leaved forest, upper temperate mixed broad leaved forest, temperate needle leaved forest, subalpine forest, plantations, tropical scrub, subtropical scrub, temperate scrub, alpine scrub, grassland, agriculture, water bodies, barren land and settlements. The forest cover statistics for Nepal obtained in this study shows an area of 76,710 km² in 1930 which has decreased to 39,392 km² in 2014. A net loss of 37,318 km² (48.6%) was observed in last eight decades. Analysis of annual rate of net deforestation for the recent period indicates 0.01% during 2005–2014. An increase in the number of forest patches from 6925 (in 1930) to 42,961 (in 2014) was noticed. The significant observation is 75.5% of reduction in core 3 forest, whereas, patch, perforated and edge classes show the increase in percentage of fragmentation classes from 1930 to 2014. The results of this work will support the understanding of deforestation and its consequences on fragmentation for maintaining and improving the forest resources of Nepal.     

The impact of red howler monkey latrines on the distribution of main nutrients and on topsoil profiles in a tropical rain forest

Scarcity of organic matter and nutrients in the topsoil is a typical feature of lowland primary tropical rain forests. However, clumped defecation by vertebrate herbivore troops and further dung beetle processing may contribute to locally improve soil biological activity and plant growth. We studied the impact of clumped defecation by the red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus), a frugivorous primate, on the vertical distribution of topsoil (0–6 cm) main nutrients and microstructures in a tropical rain forest (French Guiana). Three latrines, where monkey troops regularly defecate, were sampled, together with adjoining controls for carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and microscopic components. The vertical distribution of C and N was affected by clumped defecation: nutrients were mostly restricted to the top 2 cm in control areas while latrines exhibited homogeneously distributed C and N, resulting in higher C and N content below 2 cm. No marked effect of defecation was registered on Olsen P. A small although significant increase in pH (0.1–0.3 pH units) and a marked increase in soil respiration (×1.5–2.5) were registered in latrines. Soil microstructures were studied by the small‐volume method. Variation according to depth, site and clumped defecation was analysed by Redundancy Analysis. The three latrines were characterized by an increase in root‐penetrated mineral‐organic assemblages, mainly composed of recent and old earthworm faeces. The local stimulation of plant roots, microbial and earthworm activity was prominent, together with an increase in soil fertility. Consequences for the regeneration of tropical rain forests in the Amazonian basin were discussed, in the light of existing knowledge.     

De Brazza's monkeys (Cercopithecus neglectus) in Kenya: Census,distribution, and conservation

The population of De Brazza's monkeys (Cercopithecus neglectus) in Kenya, East Africa, was surveyed from May to September of 1983 to estimate its numbers, distribution, and conservation status. A small number of De Brazza's monkeys are protected within Saiwa National Park; however, the vast majority of the population is endangered because they are restricted to small, isolated pockets of forests amid expanding farmland within the Trans-Nzoia area of western Kenya. A few animals are found on the slopes of Mt. Elgon and on the Cherangani Hills, although these areas offer little protection. The pressures now facing this population are loss of habitat, reproductive isolation, and a decline in numbers as the result of being killed, either as a food source or as agricultural pests. If the current situation continues and no attempt is made to conserve the remaining De Brazza's monkeys, the species faces almost certain extinction in Kenya.     

A structural comparison of New Zealand and south-east Australian rain forests and their tropical affinities

An ecological comparison, with special reference to tropical affinities, is made between the rain forests of New Zealand and south-east Australia, based on the distribution of seventy physiognomic-structural attributes in mature forests at selected sites (ten in New Zealand, twenty in Australia, and four in New Guinea to represent authentic humid tropical lowland rain forest). The structural data were recorded in a standard pro forma and subjected to classification, ordination and two-parameter analysis. In the classification, the Australian and New Zealand sites, with two exceptions, separated at the four-group level. The more complex (cool subtropical) Australian types were the least related to the New Zealand forests, which are closest to Australian simple (submontane) types. There was a similar distinction in the ordination, in which the trend along the first two vectors was latitudinal, correlated with extremes of temperature and with moisture availability. The relative contributions of the structural attributes to the various site groupings in the classification and ordination are enumerated, and provide an objective scale of comparison of the forests. Structural attributes designated by analysis as exclusively or preferentially tropical by reference to the New Guinea sites are then used to assess degree of tropical affinity. The simplified cool temperate (montane) forests dominated by one species of Notho-fagus in New Zealand and Australia are closely related. The Australian forests of the sub-montane zone (mean annual temperature 12–15° C) which are typically dominated by Ceratopetalum apetalum, Nothofagus moorei or Doryphora sassafras, are similar to the podocarp-broadleaf forests, with or without kauri, of New Zealand. The Australian forests of the cool subtropical zone (mean annual temperature 15–17°C) which have mixed dominants, have some affinities with the kauri-podocarp-broadleaf forests of North Auckland. In New Zealand, a broadleaf type in which kauri is absent or rare on basalt in North Auckland (lat. 35° S) was the most complex forest sampled and is marginally subtropical.     

Conservation note: Socioecology and conservation of macaques and langurs in Varanasi,India

A survey of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) and hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus) was conducted in urban and forest areas of Varanasi, India. Data were collected on group size and composition. Nine groups of rhesus monkeys inhabited various urban niches, but langurs were completely absent from urban areas. Approximately 159 rhesus monkeys and 720 langurs lived in the forested area. Both the urban and the forested habitats of this area are being reduced in size, and it is suggested that these populations be moved to nearby forest preserves.     

A Flexible Restraint Chair for the Cynomolgus Monkey (Macaca fascicularis)1

We have found that commercial restraint chairs suitable for the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) cause severe physical distress to many cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). A new restraint chair has therefore been designed specifically for the cynomolgus. The key features of the chair are an angled neck piece, a large opening to provide free movement for the tail, a soft waist restraint, and a level surface for both the heels and ischial pads. This new chair is not only suitable for the cynomolgus monkey but may also be more comfortable for the rhesus monkey than standard commercial chairs.     

三种笼养灵长类活动时间分配的比较研究

采用焦点动物法和连续记录法对3种笼养灵长类活动时间分配进行比较研究。结果表明,川金丝猴Rhi-nopithecus roxellanae和熊猴Macaca assamensis用于休息的时间多于猕猴Macaca mulatta,移动时间则相反;川金丝猴和猕猴用于理毛的时间多于熊猴。不同性别年龄组之间的活动时间分配有差异,主要表现在川金丝猴母亲用于理毛的时间明显多于成年儿子,用于玩耍的时间则相反;猕猴成年雄性的移动时间和理毛时间多于成年雌性,玩耍时间则少于成年雌性;熊猴成年雌性的移动时间多于成年雄性,与成年个体相比,幼体花更多的时间用于玩耍,而相应的减少了其休息时间。     

A description of the upper thoracic autonomic nervous system in the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta)

The purpose of this study was to describe the autonomic innervation of the carotid sinus and heart in the rhesus monkey. Nine male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) and one male crab-eating macaque (M. fascicularis) were carefully dissected from the origin of the vagus nerves and superior cervical ganglia to the level of the fourth thoracic ganglion. The specimens were either freshly killed or obtained no later than 24 hours post mortem. The macaque monkeys were found to possess an innervation pattern that displayed features common to dog (connections between the vagus nerves and middle cervical ganglia), baboon (distinct cervical sympathetic and cervical vagal nerve trunks), and man (nerves projecting from the middle cervical and stellate ganglia to the heart). Distinct inferior cervical and first thoracic ganglia were never seen, but rather, large and well defined stellate ganglia were found. The macaque innervation pattern, when considered as a whole, most closely resembled the baboon.     

A review of sexual initiating behavior by male and female cynomolgus monkeys and some species comparisons

The sexual initiating behavior of male and female cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) observed during standard laboratory tests is reviewed and compared with that of rhesus monkeys (M. mulatta) observed under identical conditions. Species differences in sexual behavior are related here to differences in habitat, sexual dimorphism, and the dominance gradient between the sexes. Compared with rhesus monkeys, cynomolgus monkeys appear to be more arboreal, less sexually dimorphic, and have a smaller dominance gradient between the sexes. They exhibit a facultative single-mount copulatory pattern rather than the serial mount pattern of the rhesus monkey. Female cynomolgus monkeys are less dominated than rhesus females by their male partners. Direct aggression between mates is more frequent and redirected aggression occurs less often than in rhesus monkeys. These behavioral differences affect the interpretation of changes in initiation rates that occur (1) during the menstrual cycle, (2) when females are ovariectomized and given hormone replacement treatments, and (3) when males are castrated and treated with androgens. We conclude that estradiol in the female and testosterone in the male increase the sexual motivation of both the treated and the untreated partner. Valid interpretations of changes in initiation rates depend on accurate and exclusive definitions of behavior and on a consideration of the behavioral context in which they are made.     

Evaluating Dominance Styles in Assamese and Rhesus Macaques

Researchers have suggested that several types of agonistic and affiliative behavior covary as a set of species-specific traits, and have used the term dominance style to describe the covariation. We compared measures of dominance style between a group of Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis) and a group of rhesus macaques (M. mulatta), though kinship information was unknown. Assamese and rhesus female-female dyads each showed a low proportion of counter aggression and a low conciliatory tendency, suggesting that they have despotic social relationships. They also showed a despotic pattern on several other types of agonistic and affiliative behavior, such as approach outcomes and grooming distributions, which is consistent with the covariation of dominance style traits. Assamese male-male dyads showed relatively high levels of reconciliation and counter aggression versus other macaque males portrayed in the literature, suggesting that Assamese males have a tolerant dominance style. Insofar as macaque dominance style depends on the behavior of females, we suggest that Assamese macaques, like rhesus macaques, have despotic social relationships, which contrasts with evidence of a strong correlation between phylogeny and dominance style in macaques. Further, our results indicate that strong male bonding and tolerant dominance relationships among males are independent of female dominance style. Lastly, some measures of agonistic behavior, such as rate of aggression or proportion of bites, are likely altered in competitive environments and thus are not useful indicators of dominance style.     

Leptospiral agglutinins in the Cayo Santiago macaques

The colony of free-ranging rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) on Cayo Santiago, Puerto Rico, was surveyed for leptospiral agglutinins. Only 5 (3%) of 169 monkeys (25% of the population) were seropositive (titers of ? 1:100). An additional 29 animals (17%) had titers ?1:50. The proportions of seropositive males and females were 22% and 18%, respectively, and twice as many adult as immature animals (32% vs. 15%) were positive. In most seropositive monkeys a single serogroup predominated, Icterohaemorrhagiae being recorded in nearly 60% of these animals. In a follow-up survey conducted a year later, 4% of 158 of the original monkeys were seropositive, with titers of from 1:100 to 1:200. None of 22 Rattus rattus captured on Cayo Santiago had agglutinins to pathogenic serovars. Despite contact with rats and ingestion of stagnant water, the serological evidence, the excellent clinical condition, low mortality, and high reproductive rates of the Cayo Santiago macaques indicate that leptospirosis is not a health problem in this free ranging monkey colony.     

中国大陆北热带及亚热带地区樟科、壳斗科物种多样性及其生物地理格局分析

以中国大陆北热带及亚热带地区优势科樟科、壳斗科植物为研究对象,利用专著发表大量的样方数据和物种分布数据,分析樟科、壳斗科与群落构建的关系、它们各大属的地理分布格局,探讨影响其分布的可能历史原因。结果表明:中国大陆北热带及亚热带地区森林乔木层优势科为樟科、壳斗科、山茶科、杜鹃花科。樟科、壳斗科物种丰富度均与其所在群落的物种丰富度呈现一定的正相关,樟科对群落构建的贡献较大。樟科、壳斗科植物种的空间多样性分布中心均出现在我国亚热带中部偏南地区。樟科的厚壳桂属、琼楠属以及壳斗科的锥属物种多样性分布中心主要在南亚热带及北热带区域,以广西、云南省份的南部为主。樟科的樟属、新木姜子属、润楠属、木姜子属及壳斗科的柯属、青冈属主要分布在我国大陆北热带及亚热带中部偏南的地区,其多样性分布中心与樟科、壳斗科科水平的物种多样性分布中心极为相似。樟科的山胡椒属、楠属、黄肉楠属,壳斗科的栎属主要分布在研究区域中部以西的地区。研究结果佐证物种的生态学特性以及生物地理学历史综合作用导致目前樟科和壳斗科植物的生物多样性分布格局。     

氮沉降对热带亚热带森林土壤氮循环微生物过程的影响研究进展

近年来,高速的城市化和工业化建设导致全球大气氮沉降量逐年递增,其中热带亚热带地区氮沉降量显著高于全球平均水平,而大部分热带亚热带森林土壤趋近氮饱和状态,氮沉降增加将持续向土壤输入外源活性氮,极易导致土壤氮过剩,进而破环整个森林生态系统氮循环的平衡。我国热带亚热带地区经济发展快速,氮沉降增加导致的土壤养分失衡和林地退化等生态问题日益凸显,森林土壤氮循环对大气氮沉降的响应及适应机制已引起了学术界的广泛关注。研究表明氮循环各环节均由特定的功能微生物驱动完成,明确氮沉降增加对热带亚热带森林土壤氮循环功能微生物及其介导的关键过程的影响,对评价未来氮沉降增加背景下全球森林土壤氮循环的响应及驱动机制有重要作用,可为促进我国热带亚热带地区森林修复、生态环境的改善与提升提供科学支撑。鉴于此,本文综述了热带亚热带森林土壤氮循环主要过程（如固氮、硝化、反硝化、厌氧氨氧化等）及其功能微生物群落丰度、活性、组成等对氮沉降增加的响应,同时分析了这些功能微生物的群落特征与主要环境因子（如NH₄⁺、NO₃^-、有机碳、pH、含水量等）的关联性。在此基础上探讨了氮沉降增加下功能微生物对热带亚热带森林土壤氮循环的调控作用,重点探讨了功能微生物如何通过改变丰度与群落组成而影响氮循环过程,并对目前研究中存在的主要问题与未来研究重点进行了简要剖析。     

Menopause in female rhesus monkeys

Fifteen female rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatto), ranging in age from 8 to 34 years, were studied for one year to characterize the endocrine and menstrual changes associated with menopause in this species. Five monkeys were premenopausal; these younger monkeys, ages 8–11 years, menstruated and showed cyclic ovarian activity during the 12–month study period, as evidenced by menses and periodic elevations of serum estradiol (E₂) and luteinizing hormone (LH) concentrations. Four females, ages 24–26 years, were in transition to menopause. Two of these perimenopausal females menstruated and secreted E₂ and LH in a periodic fashion; the other two females showed elevated LH concentrations, consistently low E₂ levels, and no evidence of menstruation. Six females, ages 27–34 years, were clearly postmenopausal; LH concentrations were high, whereas E₂ concentrations were uniformly low. There was a significant inverse correlation between basal E₂ concentrations and age, and a significant positive correlation between age and LH concentrations across all 15 animals. Hormonal changes indicative of ovulation, when they occurred, were generally restricted to the winter and early spring months. Histological analysis of ovaries from four postmenopausal females revealed little or no evidence of active folliculogenesis. These data indicate that menopause in female rhesus monkeys does not occur until the second half of thethird decade of life. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Niche separation of sympatric macaques, Macaca assamensis and M. mulatta, in limestone habitats of Nonggang, China

Comparative studies of sympatric species are essential in understanding those species’ behavioral and ecological adaptations as well as the mechanisms that can reduce resource competition enough to allow coexistence. We collected data on diet, activity budget and habitat use from two sympatric macaque species, the Assamese macaque (Macaca assamensis) and the rhesus macaque (M. mulatta), in a limestone seasonal rainforest of Nonggang Nature Reserve, southwestern Guangxi, China. Our results show that the two sympatric macaques differ in diet, activity budget, and habitat use: (1) out of the 131 plant species that were used by both macaque species as food over the year, only 15 plant species (11 %) were shared. Rhesus macaques used more plant species as major foods, and had higher dietary diversity and evenness indexes than Assamese macaques. (2) Assamese macaques fed predominantly on leaves, whereas rhesus macaques fed more selectively on fruits. The rhesus macaques’ diet varied according to season, and was significantly correlated to season fluctuation in fruit availability. (3) Assamese macaques devoted more time to resting, and less time to feeding than rhesus macaques (4) Assamese macaques were present mostly on the cliff, and tended to stay on the ground, whereas rhesus macaques were present mostly on the hillside, and showed preference to lower and middle canopy. The observed differences in diet and habitat use between the two macaque species represent behavioral patterns enabling their coexistence.