Multifunctional floodplain management and biodiversity effects: a knowledge synthesis for six European countries

Floodplain ecosystems are biodiversity hotspots and supply multiple ecosystem services. At the same time they are often prone to human pressures that increasingly impact their intactness. Multifunctional floodplain management can be defined as a management approach aimed at a balanced supply of multiple ecosystem services that serve the needs of the local residents, but also those of off-site populations that are directly or indirectly impacted by floodplain management and policies. Multifunctional floodplain management has been recently proposed as a key concept to reconcile biodiversity and ecosystem services with the various human pressures and their driving forces. In this paper we present biophysics and management history of floodplains and review recent multifunctional management approaches and evidence for their biodiversity effects for the six European countries Ireland, the Netherlands, Germany, Slovakia, Hungary and the Ukraine. Multifunctional use of floodplains is an increasingly important strategy in some countries, for instance in the Netherlands and Hungary, and management of floodplains goes hand in hand with sustainable economic activities resulting in flood safety and biodiversity conservation. As a result, biodiversity is increasing in some of the areas where multifunctional floodplain management approaches are implemented. We conclude that for efficient use of management resources and ecosystem services, consensual solutions need to be realized and biodiversity needs to be mainstreamed into management activities to maximize ecosystem service provision and potential human benefits. Multifunctionality is more successful where a broad range of stakeholders with diverse expertise and interests are involved in all stages of planning and implementation.     

长江流域生态系统水文调节服务空间特征及影响因素:基于子流域尺度分析

水文调节服务是流域生态系统所提供的重要服务之一,认识流域生态系统水文调节服务空间变异规律及其驱动力,对于流域生态系统保护与恢复、合理开发利用水资源具有重要意义。以洪涝灾害频发的长江流域为对象,运用变异系数法和多元统计方法,在子流域尺度上研究了长江流域生态系统水文调节服务空间特征及影响因素。结果表明,长江流域子流域生态系统水文调节服务呈现出明显的空间异质性,水利工程密集、自然植被覆盖率高达71%的金沙江和汉江水系各子流域水文调节服务最强,降雨与径流变异系数差为0.477;农田和人口密集的嘉陵江水系各子流域水文调节服务最弱,降雨与径流变异系数差为-0.474,其他子流域水文调节服务作用不明显。影响水文调节服务的主要因素是:水库库容、自然植被面积比例、农田面积比例、单位面积人口数,其中:水库库容和自然植被面积比例对水文调节服务具有正向促进作用,农田面积比例和单位面积人口对水文调节服务的作用正好相反。水库库容对子流域生态系统水文调节服务空间异质性的贡献最大(58.85%)。上述结果有助于科学认识长江流域生态系统水文调节服务空间分异规律,可为制定不同子流域生态保护与恢复措施、提升子流域生态系统水文调节服务提供科学依据。     

Stream–floodplain connectivity and fish assemblage diversity in the Champlain Valley, Vermont, U.S.A.

To evaluate the influence of main channel–floodplain connectivity on fish assemblage diversity in floodplains associated with streams and small rivers, fish assemblages and habitat characteristics were surveyed at 24 stream reaches in the Champlain Valley of Vermont, U.S.A. Fish assemblages differed markedly between the main channel and the floodplain. Fish assemblage diversity was greatest at reaches that exhibited high floodplain connectivity. Whereas certain species inhabited only main channels or floodplains, others utilized both main channel and floodplain habitats. Both floodplain fish α-diversity and γ-diversity of the entire stream corridor were positively correlated with connectivity between the main channel and its floodplain. Consistent with these results, species turnover (as measured by β-diversity) was negatively correlated with floodplain connectivity. Floodplains with waterbodies characterized by a wide range of water depths and turbidity levels exhibited high fish diversity. The results suggest that by separating rivers from their floodplains, incision and subsequent channel widening will have detrimental effects on multiple aspects of fish assemblage diversity across the stream–floodplain ecosystem.     

Patchiness of River–Groundwater Interactions within Two Floodplain Landscapes and Diversity of Aquatic Invertebrate Communities

In fluvial systems, the interactions between rivers and groundwater significantly affect various ecological structures (for example, riparian vegetation) and functions. To examine the effects of hydrological exchange between groundwater and surface water on the distribution of aquatic invertebrates within a riverine landscape, we investigated the main stem, tributaries, and various surface and subsurface waters of two floodplains of a southern Alpine river (Brenno, Switzerland) in terms of their physicochemical, hydraulic, substratum, and faunal characteristics. The origins of the water were investigated by analyzing geomorphic settings and physicochemical variables. The two floodplains had different hydrological regimes. The middle floodplain was dominated by lateral inputs and exfiltration of hillslope groundwater from two different subcatchments. Bank filtration of river water sustained subsurface water only close to the channel. The aquatic habitats of the middle floodplain formed a rather homogeneous group with high taxon richness and intrahabitat diversities. These aquatic habitats resembled mountain springbrooks in their physicochemical characteristics and faunal compositions. In the lower floodplain, the exchange between river water and groundwater was more extensive. The aquatic floodplain habitats of the lower floodplain were fed mainly by deep and shallow alluvial groundwater, hyporheic exfiltration, and partly by surface water. In contrast to aquatic habitats of the middle floodplain, habitats of the lower floodplain showed a low intrahabitat and a high interhabitat diversity in terms of both substrate characteristics and faunal compositions. For both floodplains, ordination analyses showed a high concordance between the structure of the invertebrate community and the characteristics of the environmental habitat, including chemical, geomorphic, and hydraulic variables. Ordinations grouped aquatic habitats according to the origins of the waters. Taxon richness was related to local structural diversity, but species turnover was related to differential vertical and lateral connectivity. Exfiltration of groundwaters provided aquatic floodplain habitats for several specialized species. The results of this study show the significance of the river–groundwater connectivity for the creation of the habitat mosaic that sustains biodiversity in floodplains and thus have important implications for managing the ecological integrity of floodplains.     

Hydrological services and the role of forests: Conceptualization and indicator-based analysis with an illustration at a regional scale

Forests are among the most important ecosystems for the provision of hydrological services. These include water supply and water damage mitigation, in the dimensions of quantity, timing and quality. Although the hydrological role of forests is well documented in the literature, a conceptual framework integrating these three dimensions is still missing. In this study, a comprehensive conceptual framework to improve the assessment of hydrological services provided by forests was developed. In addition, the framework was tested by an illustration for northern Portugal, a region with both Mediterranean and Atlantic climatic influences. The TEEB (The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity) framework of ecosystem services was adapted to the relation between forests and water. Then, this new framework was complemented with a set of spatially-explicit indicators that quantify the supply and demand of hydrological services. In addition, the implications of the framework were discussed in the context of the social-ecological systems, using the DPSIR (Drivers, Pressures, State, Impacts, and Responses) model. Finally, the framework and the indicators were illustrated for northern Portugal using the water supply (quantity) and soil erosion control as examples. Results show that the proposed conceptual framework is a useful tool to support land planning and forest management, adapting the provision of hydrological services to the regional biophysical and social conditions. The test of the framework across a heterogeneous region suggests that a spatially explicit combination of system property, function, service and benefit indicators can be an effective way of analysing and managing the supply and demand of the hydrological services.     

景观空间异质性对生态系统服务形成与供给的影响

景观空间异质性与生态系统服务的关系极为密切,适当调整景观空间异质性有助于生态系统服务的持续形成与稳定供给。研究景观空间异质性和生态系统服务形成与供给之间的相互影响作用及响应机制具有重要的理论与现实意义,是保护生物多样性、管理生态系统服务与优化景观空间配置的基础。现有研究大多在不同尺度上探讨了景观格局与生态过程或生态系统服务间的相互影响关系,而缺乏景观格局-生态过程-生态系统服务三者间有效联结等方面的研究。景观空间异质性是怎样直接或间接地作用于生态系统服务形成与供给的,目前还没有一个较为明确的解释。因此,通过分析国内外文献,回顾了景观格局或景观空间异质性与生态系统服务之间关系的研究进展、研究内容和研究方法;从景观组成、景观构型的变化入手,讨论了景观空间异质性对生态系统服务形成与供给的影响及其强度,并认为景观组成异质性变化能够直接影响生态系统服务,而景观构型异质性变化会通过改变生态过程而间接影响生态系统服务;阐述了景观空间异质性在影响生态系统服务形成与供给的同时,也使生态系统服务在空间上产生了异质性分布,并从自然因素和人为因素两个方面对其进行解释;强调了尺度问题在景观空间异质性与生态系统服务研究中的重要性;最后,明确了对生态系统服务形成与供给的景观空间异质性影响研究不仅有助于生态系统服务的维持与调节,也能更深层次地揭示其中的生态学意义。     

Understanding relationships among multiple ecosystem services

Ecosystem management that attempts to maximize the production of one ecosystem service often results in substantial declines in the provision of other ecosystem services. For this reason, recent studies have called for increased attention to development of a theoretical understanding behind the relationships among ecosystem services. Here, we review the literature on ecosystem services and propose a typology of relationships between ecosystem services based on the role of drivers and the interactions between services. We use this typology to develop three propositions to help drive ecological science towards a better understanding of the relationships among multiple ecosystem services. Research which aims to understand the relationships among multiple ecosystem services and the mechanisms behind these relationships will improve our ability to sustainably manage landscapes to provide multiple ecosystem services.     

Research agenda on biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services in European cities

Cities are challenging environments for human life, because of multiple environmental issues driven by urbanization. These can sometimes be mitigated through ecosystem services provided by different functions supported by biodiversity. However, biodiversity in cities is affected by numerous factors, namely habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation, as well as pollution, altered climate, and new biotic challenges. To better understand the link between biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, we need to improve our mechanistic knowledge of these relationships. Trait-based ecology is a promising approach for unravelling the causes and consequences of biodiversity filtering on ecosystem processes and underlying services, but large gaps remain unexplored.Here, we present a series of research directions that are aimed at extending the current knowledge of the relationship between trait-based biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services in cities. These directions are based on: (1) improving urban habitat mapping; (2) considering often neglected urban habitats and ecological niches; (3) integrating multiple urban gradients; (4) using trait-based approaches to improve our mechanistic understanding of the relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services; and (5) extending the involvement of citizens.Pursuing these research directions may support the sustainable management of urban ecosystems and the long-term provision of ecosystem services, ultimately enhancing the well-being of urban populations.     

丹江口水源区生态系统服务时空变化及权衡协同关系

研究区域多种生态系统服务之间的权衡协同关系特征,对不同生态系统服务、不同区域之间的协调发展,实现利益相关方效益最大化,达到区域发展与生态保护"双赢"具有重要意义。针对目前权衡协同定性分析、长时间动态变化研究不足的现状,以丹江口水源区为例,在采用"当量因子法"求得研究区生态系统服务价值的基础上,使用长时间整体分析占优的相关性分析方法和短时期动态变化分析占优的生态系统服务权衡协同度(ESTD)模型对研究区1990—2015年10种生态系统服务的权衡协同关系展开研究。结果表明:1990—1995年,丹江口水源区生态系统服务价值呈负增长,之后则呈不断上涨的时序变化趋势,增幅最大的生态系统服务为水资源供给。生态服务价值最高的用地类型为林地,其次为草地和水域。空间上,生态系统服务价值呈东南高西北低特征。在丹江口水源区生态系统服务之间相互关系中,协同关系占64%,是丹江口水源区生态系统服务之间的主导关系,权衡关系较少,且大多存在于供给服务与调节服务、文化服务、支持服务之间。丹江口大坝加高后,即2005年之后,水源区内生态系统服务之间的权衡协同方向有所改变,改变明显的生态服务有净化环境、水文调节和水资源供给。这3种生态系统服务与生态系统服务之间的权衡关系增多,除这3种生态系统服务外,其余几种单项生态系统服务与生态系统服务之间的权衡关系减少。     

Biogeochemical implications of climate change for tropical rivers and floodplains

Large rivers of the tropics, many of which have extensive floodplains and deltas, are important in the delivery of nutrients and sediments to marine environments, in methane emission to the atmosphere and in providing ecosystem services associated with their high biological productivity. These ecosystem functions entail biogeochemical processes that will be influenced by climate change. Evidence for recent climate-driven changes in tropical rivers exists, but remains equivocal. Model projections suggest substantial future climate-driven changes, but they also underscore the complex interactions that control landscape water balances, river discharges and biogeochemical processes. The most important changes are likely to involve: (1) aquatic thermal regimes, with implications for thermal optima of plants and animals, rates of microbially mediated biogeochemical transformations, density stratification of water bodies and dissolved oxygen depletion; (2) hydrological regimes of discharge and floodplain inundation, which determine the ecological structure and function of rivers and floodplains and the extent and seasonality of aquatic environments; and (3) freshwater–seawater gradients where rivers meet oceans, affecting the distribution of marine, brackish and freshwater environments and the biogeochemical processing as river water approaches the coastal zone. In all cases, climate change affects biogeochemical processes in concert with other drivers such as deforestation and other land use changes, dams and other hydrological alterations and water withdrawals. Furthermore, changes in riverine hydrology and biogeochemistry produce potential feedbacks to climate involving biogeochemical processes such as decomposition and methane emission. Future research should seek improved understanding of these changes, and long-term monitoring should be extended to shallow waters of wetlands and floodplains in addition to the larger lakes and rivers that are most studied.     

Assessing regulating and provisioning ecosystem services in a contrasting tropical forest landscape

Ecosystem services are the bridge between nature and society, and are essential elements of community well-being. The Wet Tropics Australia, is environmentally and biologically diverse, and supplies numerous ecosystem services. It contributes to the community well-being of this region, Australian national economy and global climate change mitigation efforts. However, the ecosystem services in the region have rarely been assessed undermining strategic landscape planning to sustain their future flow. In this study, we attempted to: (i) assess the quantity of five regulating ecosystem services – global climate regulation, air quality regulation, erosion regulation, nutrient regulation, and cyclone protection, and three provisioning ecosystem services – habitat provision, energy provision and timber provision across rainforests, sclerophyll forests and rehabilitated plantation forests; (ii) evaluate the variation of supply of those regulating and provisioning ecosystem services across environmental gradients, such as rainfall, temperature, and elevation; (iii) show the relationships among those ecosystem services; and (iv) identify the hotspots of single and multiple ecosystem services supply across the landscape. The results showed that rainforests possess a very high capacity to supply single and multiple ecosystem services, and the hotspots for most of the regulating and provisioning ecosystem services are found in upland rainforest followed by lowland rainforest, and upland sclerophyll forest. Elevation, rainfall and temperature gradients along with forest structure are the main determinant factors for the quantity of ecosystem services supplied across the three forest types. The correlation among ecosystem services may be positive or negative depending on the ecosystem service category and vegetation type. The rehabilitated plantation forests may provide some ecosystem services comparable to the rainforest. The results demonstrated disturbance regimes (such as tropical cyclones) may have influenced the usual spatial trend of ecosystem service values. This study will assist decision makers in incorporating ecosystem services into their natural resource management planning, and for practitioners to identify the areas with higher values of specific and multiple ecosystem services.     

卧龙自然保护区生态系统服务福祉贡献评估:当地居民的视角

福祉贡献是生态系统服务的核心,也是生态系统管理和恢复的目标之一。从当地居民的角度,以卧龙自然保护区为例,调查了生态系统服务的福祉贡献,研究了生态系统服务、福祉贡献和受益者之间的联系。研究表明,从福祉角度看,24种生态系统服务的福祉贡献存在差异,表现为社会福祉高于个人福祉。从生态系统服务类型来看,调节服务的福祉贡献高于文化服务和供应服务,特别是净化空气、预防自然灾害和淡水供应这3项生态系统服务的福祉贡献最高。从生态系统服务的变化趋势和福祉贡献来看,由于生物多样性保护和生态恢复政策的实施,采集、传统农作物、牲畜和土壤肥力等生态系统服务呈下降趋势,其中土壤肥力是下降趋势明显且对受访者福祉贡献较大的生态系统服务类型,可确定为关键的生态系统服务。多元方差分析和逻辑斯蒂回归分析表明,生态系统服务的福祉贡献与受访者的性别、年龄、职业、收入构成等因素显著相关。研究分析了影响生态系统服务福祉贡献差异性的原因并提出了相应的管理对策。     

Indicators of biodiversity and ecosystem services: a synthesis across ecosystems and spatial scales

According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, common indicators are needed to monitor the loss of biodiversity and the implications for the sustainable provision of ecosystem services. However, a variety of indicators are already being used resulting in many, mostly incompatible, monitoring systems. In order to synthesise the different indicator approaches and to detect gaps in the development of common indicator systems, we examined 531 indicators that have been reported in 617 peer‐reviewed journal articles between 1997 and 2007. Special emphasis was placed on comparing indicators of biodiversity and ecosystem services across ecosystems (forests, grass‐ and shrublands, wetlands, rivers, lakes, soils and agro‐ecosystems) and spatial scales (from patch to global scale). The application of biological indicators was found most often focused on regional and finer spatial scales with few indicators applied across ecosystem types. Abiotic indicators, such as physico‐chemical parameters and measures of area and fragmentation, are most frequently used at broader (regional to continental) scales. Despite its multiple dimensions, biodiversity is usually equated with species richness only. The functional, structural and genetic components of biodiversity are poorly addressed despite their potential value across habitats and scales. Ecosystem service indicators are mostly used to estimate regulating and supporting services but generally differ between ecosystem types as they reflect ecosystem‐specific services. Despite great effort to develop indicator systems over the past decade, there is still a considerable gap in the widespread use of indicators for many of the multiple components of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and a need to develop common monitoring schemes within and across habitats. Filling these gaps is a prerequisite for linking biodiversity dynamics with ecosystem service delivery and to achieving the goals of global and sub‐global initiatives to halt the loss of biodiversity.     

四川盆地多重生态系统服务景观指数评价与服务簇识别

明确多重生态系统服务与生态系统服务簇的空间格局对于维持区域生态安全格局与可持续发展至关重要。在评估四川盆地2015年6种生态系统服务的基础上,计算了表征综合水平的多重生态系统服务景观指数;进而分析了生态系统服务间权衡与协同关系;并基于K-均值聚类法识别了研究区内生态系统服务簇的空间格局。研究结果表明：（1）研究区的多重生态系统服务景观指数平均值达到3.12,同时具有明显的空间分异性,整体上呈现出东南高西北低的空间分布格局,高值区主要分布于川东平行岭谷区,以林、草地为主的区域最高,城市建成区及其邻近地区最低。（2）6种生态系统服务空间异质性显著,且不同服务间协同与权衡关系并存,其中碳汇、生境质量和水土保持服务三者间的协同关系显著,碳汇、生境质量和水土保持服务与娱乐和粮食供给服务间的权衡关系均较强;产水服务与其他各项服务间的权衡与协同关系均较弱。（3）四川盆地可划分为文化旅游、食物供给、生态保育和多功能复合均衡型4种服务簇,其空间布局与内部结构分异明显。文化旅游型服务簇面积最小,面积占比为3.11%,主要分布于成都和重庆城镇及其周边地区,其提供多重生态系统服务功能的能力最弱;食物供给型服务簇主要位于成都平原、浅丘及部分河谷区域,面积约占36.23%;生态保育型服务簇主要分布于盆周山地,以林地为主导,其提供多重生态系统服务功能的能力最强,面积占比达22.61%;多功能复合均衡型服务簇分布最广,面积占比为38.04%,集中于川中、川东丘陵及平行岭谷槽谷区域。采取差异化优化措施有利于整体提升四川盆地生态系统服务能力,维护区域生态安全格局。     

Archaic and contemporary topographic diversification of Upper Mississippi River forests

Topographic diversity is an important component of environmental heterogeneity. Topographic diversity within the Upper Mississippi River floodplain has been degraded because of modifications for navigation improvement. Efforts aimed at restoring topographic diversity in the Upper Mississippi River floodplain have been extensive but have not focused on reversing the effects of forest loss and degradation. We investigated habitat features associated with Cerulean Warbler (Setophaga cerulea) locations both within and outside of river floodplains and hypothesized this species would select topographically diverse habitats. Both topographic diversity and the distance to the upland forest/floodplain forest interface were useful predictors of Cerulean Warbler presence. We conclude that incorporation of topographic diversity into floodplain forest restoration planning would likely benefit Cerulean Warblers and the other species with similar habitat requirements. Incorporating topographic diversity into floodplain forest conservation planning will be challenging on major rivers that serve multiple purposes.     

陕北黄土高原景观格局对生态系统服务权衡关系的影响

揭示景观格局对生态系统服务权衡关系的作用机理对于开展多种ES的可持续管理具有重要意义。在评估陕北黄土高原2000—2020年粮食供给、水源涵养、土壤保持、生境质量和景观美学等5种生态系统服务的基础上,利用相关系数和均方根误差测度其权衡强度,结合R指数模型、变异划分法定量表达景观组分和景观配置对生态系统服务权衡关系的影响差异。结果表明：1)2000—2020年陕北黄土高原5种生态系统服务整体呈上升趋势,空间上粮食供给北高南低,水源涵养、土壤保持、生境质量和景观美学则为南高北低的分布格局;2)粮食供给与其他4种服务为权衡关系,而水源涵养、土壤保持、生境质量和景观美学之间呈协同关系;3)斑块丰富度对各组权衡关系具有正向影响,而斑块面积和景观百分比则具有负向影响;4)景观组分对各组权衡关系的单独贡献度高于景观配置,多数情况下,权衡关系更多由组分和配置的联合作用主导。研究从景观管理角度为改善陕北黄土高原生态系统服务间的权衡关系、提升ES的潜在供给能力提供了科学依据。     

农业景观异质性对生物多样性与生态系统服务的影响研究进展

农业景观是人类生活所需资料的最主要来源地,农业景观及其提供的生物多样性和生态系统服务是影响人类福祉的最主要因素之一。系统梳理了景观异质性变化对生物多样性和生态系统服务影响的相关研究,总结指出:(1)农业景观格局变化会强烈的影响着区域生物多样性和生态系统服务,但总体上更关注了空间异质性,对于时间和功能异质性的研究仍需加强;(2)尺度效应、大尺度上景观背景的差异、种间差异、营养级联效应等会对景观异质性和生物多样性、生态系统服务间的关系产生显著的、综合的、交互的影响效应。未来区域农业景观中如何通过景观构建和管理措施的施行来确保生物多样性与生态系统服务供给的持续稳定仍需进一步加强以下内容的研究:景观异质性变化在时间上和功能上的影响效应及其阈值的探讨;跨尺度、多因素、多物种类群与多生态系统服务的综合及其交互作用;不同生物类群和不同生态系统服务间的权衡;景观异质性提高与有效生境面积下降及其引起的生物随机丧失间的权衡等问题。     

Habitat aging and degradation in terrestrialized floodplains: a need to rejuvenate processes for sustaining freshwater mussel populations

Progressive floodplain terrestrialization leads to the deterioration of floodplain ecosystems. Although the importance of hydrological connectivity between floodplain habitats and river channels for floodplain-dependent organisms has been emphasized, less attention has been paid to the temporal relationship between habitat degradation and aquatic organisms. In this study, we examined temporal changes in mussel population structures and the hydrological connectivity of pond-like floodplain water bodies (FWBs) in the terrestrialized floodplains of a lowland river in Japan. We tested the hypothesis that FWB habitats for mussels degrade over time, while newly formed FWBs contribute to providing recruitment sites for mussels. The habitat age for 53 FWBs was determined as of 2018, using historical aerial photographs. Inundation frequency, mussel abundance, and size structures (shell length) were also investigated in the FWBs in 2007 and 2018. Mussel abundance decreased with FWB aging (6–36 years), which coincided with a decrease in inundation frequency. In most existing FWBs, mussel abundance in all size classes decreased over the decade (2007–2018). In contrast, small individuals occurred in the newly formed FWBs at age 6, and in the existing FWBs where inundation frequency slightly increased over the decade (2007–2018), such FWBs were rare. In conclusion, the “young” and “rejuvenated” FWBs were found to be critically important for the recruitment and persistence of mussel populations. This suggests that the floodplain management strategy of “cyclic floodplain rejuvenation” could be applicable for mussel conservation in terrestrialized floodplains of lowland rivers.     

Mapping landscape services,spatial synergies and trade-offs. A case study using variogram models and geostatistical simulations in an agrarian landscape in North-East Germany

This paper presents a probabilistic approach for mapping and assessment of services provided by landscapes, based on variogram modelling and geostatistical simulations. Of operational value is that several services can be treated and mapped simultaneously, providing an efficient tool to model the heterogeneity of different landscape components. The methodology was adopted to depict spatial heterogeneity of five landscape services in the case study area of Märkische Schweiz in North East Germany: habitat for species, crop production, visual appreciation, water supply, and water regulation. Results, displayed in terms of single and joint probability maps, provide new insights about the composition and interrelation of multiple services in a region. It is shown that each landscape service is characterised by a specific spatial pattern, described in terms of heterogeneity and spatial range. Setting a probability threshold of service occurrence >0.50, 10% of the area under agricultural land uses provides no landscape services, 35% delivers one service while 25% and 19% supply two and three services, respectively. The share of agricultural area with a potential joint provision of four services equals 10%, while only 1.4% of the area has a potential to deliver five joint landscape services. The highest mean join probability is that observed for the common supply of production and habitat services (30%), highlighting the occurrence of hotspots of services provision with possible conflicts due to the on-going intensification of agricultural management.     

Using Life Strategies to Explore the Vulnerability of Ecosystem Services to Invasion by Alien Plants

Invasive plants can have different effects on ecosystem functioning and on the provision of ecosystem services, with the direction and magnitude of such effects depending on the service and ecosystem being considered, but also on the life strategies of the invaders. Strategies can influence invasiveness, but also key processes of host ecosystems. To address the combined effects of these various factors, we developed a methodological framework to identify areas of possible conflict between ecosystem services and alien invasive plants, considering interactions between landscape invasibility and species invasiveness. Our framework combines multi-model inference, efficient techniques to map ecosystem services, and life strategies. The latter provides a functional link between invasion, functional changes, and potential provision of services by invaded ecosystems. The framework was applied to a region in Portugal, for which we could successfully predict current patterns of plant invasion, of ecosystem service provision, and of potential conflict between alien species richness and the potential provision of selected services. Potential conflicts were identified for all combinations of plant strategy and ecosystem service, with an emphasis on carbon sequestration, water regulation, and wood production. Lower levels of conflict were obtained between invasive plant strategies and the habitat for biodiversity supporting service. The value of the proposed framework for landscape management and planning is discussed with emphasis on anticipation of conflicts, mitigation of negative impacts, and facilitation of positive effects of plant invasions on ecosystems and their services.