Geographical variation in Fucus vesiculosus morphology in the Baltic and North Seas

Effects of stress and disturbance on morphology, reproductive effort, size and sex ratio were studied for Fucus vesiculosus populations from the Baltic Sea at Askö and the North Sea on the west coast of Sweden at Tjäm[otilde]. High morphological variation was found between Fucus populations, with significant differences in length and weight of individuals, thallus breadth, number of branches and receptacles and receptacle weight, not only between Baltic and North Sea populations but also between populations within the same area, differing in wave exposure. With increasing disturbance, individuals in both studied populations were smaller and less branched. Differences were observed in plant size, with longer, broader and more branched plants being found in Askö compared with Tjärnö. Fucus populations at Tjämö allocated more biomass to reproduction and had longer, heavier receptacles than at Askö. Although the observed morphological changes may be partly explained by differences in wave exposure and salinity between the two sites, it is not possible to rule out genetic differences between the Baltic and North Sea populations. However, it is unlikely that the variations observed within the populations and between populations from the same area are genetically determined.     

Future warming and acidification effects on anti‐fouling and anti‐herbivory traits of the brown alga Fucus vesiculosus (Phaeophyceae)

Human‐induced ocean warming and acidification have received increasing attention over the past decade and are considered to have substantial consequences for a broad range of marine species and their interactions. Understanding how these interactions shift in response to climate change is particularly important with regard to foundation species, such as the brown alga Fucus vesiculosus. This macroalga represents the dominant habitat former on coastal rocky substrata of the Baltic Sea, fulfilling functions essential for the entire benthic community. Its ability to withstand extensive fouling and herbivory regulates the associated community and ecosystem dynamics. This study tested the interactive effects of future warming, acidification, and seasonality on the interactions of a marine macroalga with potential foulers and consumers. F. vesiculosus rockweeds were exposed to different combinations of conditions predicted regionally for the year 2100 (+?5°C, +?700 μatm CO₂) using multifactorial long‐term experiments in novel outdoor benthic mesocosms (“Benthocosms”) over 9–12‐week periods in four seasons. Possible shifts in the macroalgal susceptibility to fouling and consumption were tested using consecutive bioassays. Algal susceptibility to fouling and grazing varied substantially among seasons and between treatments. In all seasons, warming predominantly affected anti‐fouling and anti‐herbivory interactions while acidification had a subtle nonsignificant influence. Interestingly, anti‐microfouling activity was highest during winter under warming, while anti‐macrofouling and anti‐herbivory activities were highest in the summer under warming. These contrasting findings indicate that seasonal changes in anti‐fouling and anti‐herbivory traits may interact with ocean warming in altering F. vesiculosus community composition in the future.     

Nitrate uptake varies with tide height and nutrient availability in the intertidal seaweed Fucus vesiculosus

Intertidal seaweeds must cope with a suite of stressors imposed by aerial exposure at low tide, including nutrient limitation due to emersion. Seaweeds can access nutrients only when submerged, so individuals living higher compared to lower on the shore may have adaptations allowing them to acquire sufficient amounts of nutrients to survive and maintain growth. Using a combination of observations and experiments, we aimed to identify intraspecific variation in nitrate uptake rates across the intertidal distribution of F. vesiculosus, as well as test for acclimation in response to a change in tide height. We replicated our study at sites spanning nearly the entire Gulf of Maine coastline, to examine how local environmental variability may alter intraspecific variation in nitrate uptake. We found that average nitrate uptake rates were ~18% higher in upper compared to lower intertidal Fucus vesiculosus. Furthermore, we found evidence for both acclimation and adaptation to tide height during a transplant experiment. F. vesiculosus transplanted from the lower to the upper intertidal zone was characterized by increased nitrate uptake, but individuals transplanted from the upper to the lower intertidal zone retained high uptake rates. Our observations differed among Gulf of Maine regions and among time points of our study. Importantly, these differences may reflect associations between nitrate uptake rates and abiotic environmental conditions and seaweed nutrient status. Our study highlights the importance of long‐term variation in ambient nutrient supply in driving intraspecific variation of seaweeds across the intertidal gradient and local and seasonal variation in ambient nutrient levels in mediating intraspecific differences.     

Genetic diversity of Saccharina latissima (Phaeophyceae) along a salinity gradient in the North Sea–Baltic Sea transition zone

The North Sea–Baltic Sea transition zone constitutes a boundary area for the kelp species Saccharina latissima due to a strong salinity gradient operating in the area. Furthermore, the existence of S. latissima there, along Danish waters, is fairly patchy as hard bottom is scarce. In this study, patterns of genetic diversity of S. latissima populations were evaluated along the salinity gradient area of Danish waters (here designated brackish) and were compared to reference sites (here designated marine) outside the gradient area, using microsatellite markers. The results showed that the S. latissima populations were structured into two clusters corresponding to brackish versus marine sites, and that gene flow was reduced both between clusters and between populations within clusters. In addition, results provided empirical evidence that marginal populations of S. latissima in the salinity gradient area exhibited a distinct genetic structure when compared to marine ones. Brackish populations were less diverse, more related, and showed increased differentiation over distance compared to marine populations. The isolation of the brackish S. latissima populations within the salinity gradient area of Danish waters in conjunction with their general low genetic diversity makes these populations vulnerable to ongoing environmental and climate change, predicted to result in declining salinity in the Baltic Sea area that may alter the future distribution and performance of S. latissima in the area.     

Summer aridity rather than management shapes fitness‐related functional traits of the threatened mountain plant Arnica montana

Semi‐natural mountain grasslands are increasingly exposed to environmental stress under climate change. However, which are the environmental factors that limit plants in these grasslands? Also, is the present management effective against these changes? Fitness‐related functional traits may offer a way to detect changes in performance and provide new insights into their vulnerability to climate change. We investigated changes in performance and variability of functional traits of the mountain grassland target species Arnica montana along a climate gradient in Central German low mountain ranges. This gradient represents at its lower end climate conditions that are expected at its upper end under future climate change. We measured vegetative, generative, and physiological traits to account for multiple ways of plant responses to the environment. Using mixed effects and multivariate models, we evaluated changes in trait values among individuals as well as the variability of their populations in order to assess performance under changing summer aridity and different management regimes. Fitness‐related performance of most traits showed strongly positive associations with reduced summer aridity at higher elevations, while only specific leaf area and leaf dry matter content showed no association. This suggests a higher performance level at less arid montane sites and that the physiological traits are less sensitive to this climate change factor. The coefficient of variation of almost all traits declined steadily with decreasing site aridity. We suggest that this reduced variability indicates a lower environmental stress level for A. montana toward its environmental optimum at montane elevations, especially because the trait performance increased simultaneously. Surprisingly, management factors and habitat characteristics had only low influence on both trait performance and variability. In summary, summer aridity had a stronger effect to shape the trait performance and variability of A. montana under increased environmental stress than management and other habitat characteristics.     

Seasonal variation in the antifouling defence of the temperate brown alga Fucus vesiculosus

The important role of marine epibiotic biofilms in the interactions of the host with its environment has been acknowledged recently. Previous studies with the temperate brown macroalga Fucus vesiculosus have identified polar and non-polar compounds recovered from the algal surface that have the potential to control such biofilms. Furthermore, both the fouling pressure and the composition of the epibiotic bacterial communities on this macroalga varied seasonally. The extent to which this reflects a seasonal fluctuation of the fouling control mechanisms of the host is, however, unexplored in an ecological context. The present study investigated seasonal variation in the anti-settlement activity of surface extracts of F. vesiculosus against eight biofilm-forming bacteria isolated from rockweed-dominated habitats, including replication of two populations from two geographically distant sites. The anti-settlement activity at both sites was found to vary temporally, reaching a peak in summer/autumn. Anti-settlement activity also showed a consistent and strong difference between sites throughout the year. This study is the first to report temporal variation of antifouling defence originating from ecologically relevant surface-associated compounds.     

Effects of inbreeding on fitness‐related traits in a small isolated moose population

Inbreeding can affect fitness‐related traits at different life history stages and may interact with environmental variation to induce even larger effects. We used genetic parentage assignment based on 22 microsatellite loci to determine a 25 year long pedigree for a newly established island population of moose with 20–40 reproducing individuals annually. We used the pedigree to calculate individual inbreeding coefficients and examined for effects of individual inbreeding (f) and heterozygosity on fitness‐related traits. We found negative effects of f on birth date, calf body mass and twinning rate. The relationship between f and calf body mass and twinning rate were found to be separate but weaker after accounting for birth date. We found no support for an inbreeding effect on the age‐specific lifetime reproductive success of females. The influence of f on birth date was related to climatic conditions during the spring prior to birth, indicating that calves with a low f were born earlier after a cold spring than calves with high f. In years with a warm spring, calf f did not affect birth date. The results suggest that severe inbreeding in moose has both indirect effects on fitness through delayed birth and lower juvenile body mass, as well as separate direct effects, as there still was a significant relationship between f and twinning rate after accounting for birth date and body mass as calf. Consequently, severe inbreeding as found in the study population may have consequences for population growth and extinction risk.     

Geographic variation in cone volatiles and pollinators in the thermogenic African cycad Encephalartos ghellinckii Lem

• Heat and odour production can have profound effects on pollination in cycads. It is therefore expected that these traits would co‐vary geographically with pollinator assemblages. Such intraspecific variation, may lead to the evolution of pollination ecotypes, which can be an early stage of pollinator‐mediated speciation.
• We measured cone temperatures using miniature temperature data loggers and examined the composition of cone volatile odours using headspace sampling and analysis with gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry in four populations spanning the range of the African cycad Encephalartos ghellinckii. Pollinator assemblages were also investigated in three populations.
• Male and female cones were thermogenic at pollen shed and receptive stages, respectively, but patterns of thermogenesis did not vary among populations. Scent emissions from cones in populations in the Drakensberg Mountains were characterised by cis‐β‐ocimene, β‐myrcene and (3E)‐1,3‐octadiene, while camphene and α‐pinene were characteristic of scent emissions from cones in populations closer to the coast. These differences in volatile blends corresponded with differences in insect assemblages.
• These results confirm intraspecific variation in volatile emissions of E. ghellinckii and support the predictions that intraspecific variation in volatile emissions will be associated with shifts in pollinator assemblages. While further work needs to be done to test for local adaptation in this system, this preliminary evidence is consistent with the formation of pollination ecotypes in the E. ghellinckii species complex.

     

Behavioral constraints on local adaptation and counter‐gradient variation: Implications for climate change

Resource allocation to growth, reproduction, and body maintenance varies within species along latitudinal gradients. Two hypotheses explaining this variation are local adaptation and counter‐gradient variation. The local adaptation hypothesis proposes that populations are adapted to local environmental conditions and are therefore less adapted to environmental conditions at other locations. The counter‐gradient variation hypothesis proposes that one population out performs others across an environmental gradient because its source location has greater selective pressure than other locations. Our study had two goals. First, we tested the local adaptation and counter‐gradient variation hypotheses by measuring effects of environmental temperature on phenotypic expression of reproductive traits in the burying beetle, Nicrophorus orbicollis Say, from three populations along a latitudinal gradient in a common garden experimental design. Second, we compared patterns of variation to evaluate whether traits covary or whether local adaptation of traits precludes adaptive responses by others. Across a latitudinal range, N. orbicollis exhibits variation in initiating reproduction and brood sizes. Consistent with local adaptation: (a) beetles were less likely to initiate breeding at extreme temperatures, especially when that temperature represents their source range; (b) once beetles initiate reproduction, source populations produce relatively larger broods at temperatures consistent with their local environment. Consistent with counter‐gradient variation, lower latitude populations were more successful at producing offspring at lower temperatures. We found no evidence for adaptive variation in other adult or offspring performance traits. This suite of traits does not appear to coevolve along the latitudinal gradient. Rather, response to selection to breed within a narrow temperature range may preclude selection on other traits. Our study highlights that N. orbicollis uses temperature as an environmental cue to determine whether to initiate reproduction, providing insight into how behavior is modified to avoid costly reproductive attempts. Furthermore, our results suggest a temperature constraint that shapes reproductive behavior.     

Geographic variation in thermal sensitivity of early life traits in a widespread reptile

Taxa with large geographic distributions generally encompass diverse macroclimatic conditions, potentially requiring local adaptation and/or phenotypic plasticity to match their phenotypes to differing environments. These eco‐evolutionary processes are of particular interest in organisms with traits that are directly affected by temperature, such as embryonic development in oviparous ectotherms. Here we examine the spatial distribution of fitness‐related early life phenotypes across the range of a widespread vertebrate, the painted turtle (Chrysemys picta). We quantified embryonic and hatchling traits from seven locations (in Idaho, Minnesota, Oregon, Illinois, Nebraska, Kansas, and New Mexico) after incubating eggs under constant conditions across a series of environmentally relevant temperatures. Thermal reaction norms for incubation duration and hatchling mass varied among locations under this common‐garden experiment, indicating genetic differentiation or pre‐ovulatory maternal effects. However, latitude, a commonly used proxy for geographic variation, was not a strong predictor of these geographic differences. Our findings suggest that this macroclimatic proxy may be an unreliable surrogate for microclimatic conditions experienced locally in nests. Instead, complex interactions between abiotic and biotic factors likely drive among‐population phenotypic variation in this system. Understanding spatial variation in key life‐history traits provides an important perspective on adaptation to contemporary and future climatic conditions.     

Geographic variation of reproductive traits and competition for pollinators in a bird‐pollinated plant

Geographic variation in the reproductive traits of animal‐pollinated plants can be shaped by spatially variable selection imposed by differences in the local pollination environment. We investigated this process in Babiana ringens (Iridaceae), an enigmatic species from the Western Cape region of South Africa. B. ringens has evolved a specialized perch facilitating cross‐pollination by sunbirds and displays striking geographic variation in perch size and floral traits. Here, we investigate whether this variation can be explained by geographic differences in the pollinator communities. We measured floral and inflorescence traits, and abiotic variables (N, P, C, and rainfall) and made observations of sunbirds in populations spanning the range of B. ringens. In each population, we recorded sunbird species identity and measured visitation rates, interfloral pollen transfer, and whether the seed set of flowers was pollen limited. To evaluate whether competition from co‐occurring sunbird‐pollinated species might reduce visitation, we quantified nectar rewards in B. ringens and of other co‐flowering bird‐pollinated species in local communities in which populations occurred. Variation in abiotic variables was not associated with geographical variation of traits in B. ringens. Malachite sunbirds were the dominant visitor (97% of visits) and populations with larger‐sized traits exhibited higher visitation rates, more between‐flower pollen transfer and set more seed. No sunbirds were observed in four populations, all with smaller‐sized traits. Sunbird visitation to B. ringens was not associated with local sunbird activity in communities, but sunbird visitation was negatively associated with the amount of B. ringens sugar relative to the availability of alternative nectar sources. Our study provides evidence that B. ringens populations with larger floral traits are visited more frequently by sunbirds, and we propose that visitation rates to B. ringens may be influenced, in part, by competition with other sunbird‐pollinated species.     

Density dependent grazing effects of the isopod Idotea baltica Pallas on Fucus vesiculosus L in the Baltic Sea

In the Baltic Sea, abiotic factors are often supposed to explain the distribution of the key species Fucus vesiculosus. Still, in many areas, decline of F. vesiculosus has coincided with mass occurrence of the herbivorous isopod Idotea baltica. The aim of this work was to examine whether, how and at what densities I. baltica can affect the distribution of F. vesiculosus in the central Baltic proper. Both large-scale field surveys and a two-week grazing experiment have been performed.In the field survey there was a correlation between density of I. baltica and reduction in depth penetration of F. vesiculosus. At 80 animals per 100 g F. vesiculosus wet weight, the depth penetration of the F. vesiculosus belt was reduced by 2.5 m within a year. In the grazing experiment there was a correlation between density of I. baltica and loss of F. vesiculosus biomass and meristems. In the controls biomass and number of meristems increased by 50%, while at 20 animals per 100 g of F. vesiculosus there was no net growth of F. vesiculosus. Intensity of grazing did not differ between isopod densities of 20, 40 and 60/100 g. At isopod densities of 80 and 100/100 g though, biomass and meristems decreased by 50%, indicating a threshold for the survival of F. vesiculosus in the experiment. At all densities the isopods preferred younger tissue to older.Our results indicate that grazing by Idotea baltica is an important structuring factor in the Baltic Fucus vesiculosus populations.     

Morphological and genetic variation of Fucus in the eastern Gulf of Bothnia,northern Baltic Sea

Fucus vesiculosus and F. radicans (Phaeophyceae) are important habitat-formers on rocky shores in the Bothnian Sea. While both species occur sympatrically along the entire western Bothnian Sea coast, F. radicans has been found only in the northern part of the eastern coast. According to previous studies, the two species can be distinguished based on morphology, F. radicans having narrower thalli and a bushier appearance. However, marine mapping in the eastern Bothnian Sea has revealed that high morphological variation in Fucus, partly caused by gradients in salinity and exposure, makes differentiation between the two species difficult. We studied morphological and genetic variation to find out whether the two Fucus species can be differentiated in the south-eastern Bothnian Sea, and if F. radicans occurs in the area. The study was carried out in six subareas including 350 km of coast, with a salinity gradient of 3.5–6.5 PSU, and varying wave exposure. We found a gradual change towards smaller and narrower thalli and a higher number of holdfasts in Fucus populations when moving northwards to lower salinities. Distinct Fucus morphs were often found within the study sites but the morphs were genetically differentiated only at one study site in the Skaftung subarea, suggesting the occurrence of both species. However, in the Vasa subarea the sample size for analysing genetic differentiation was low due to high clonality. In the Luvia subarea south of Skaftung, Fucus morphology corresponded to that of F. radicans in earlier studies but the population was genetically more similar to F. vesiculosus in the southern subareas. We conclude that by using only morphological characteristics it is not possible to differentiate between the two species in central and northern parts of the eastern Bothnian Sea. Based on genetic analyses, the southernmost known occurrence of F. radicans in the eastern Bothnian Sea is in Skaftung.     

Floral color variation and associations with fitness‐related traits in Malva moschata (Malvaceae)

Genetic polymorphisms for floral color are interesting phenomena to study because they are likely to be maintained by opposing selective forces. Pollinator preferences may exert direct selection on floral color; however, floral color might also be the indirect target of selection through genetic associations with other traits under selection. Malva moschata (Malvaceae) is a North American species that produces either red or white flowers. In the present study, we present reflectance spectrophotometry data that characterize the nature of floral color variation in this species and show that honey bees and bumble bees should be able to distinguish between the morphs through differential sensitivity at the green (long‐wavelength) photoreceptor. Second, we use a series of phenotypic measures to investigate whether the color morphs differ with respect to other floral traits, vegetative traits or female reproductive success, and use a series of correlation analyses to infer the relative independence of color from these other traits. We found that red‐flowered morphs produced more anthers per flower and had greater leaf area, and that white‐flowered morphs had greater percentage fruit set; however, there were no reproductive success differences between the morphs. The relationship between flower size and anther number was the only correlation that differed between the morphs. Finally, a series of pollinator‐choice experiments showed that bumble bees strongly prefer red morphs in terms of visit frequency and duration, but honey bees have no preference. Taken together, our results suggest that color is rather independent of other phenotypic traits, and that honey bee abundance is likely to play a role in maintaining color variation in this system.     

Amplicon‐pyrosequencing‐based detection of compositional shifts in bryophyte‐associated fungal communities along an elevation gradient

Although bryophytes are a dominant vegetation component of boreal and alpine ecosystems, little is known about their associated fungal communities. HPLC assays of ergosterol (fungal biomass) and amplicon pyrosequencing of the ITS2 region of rDNA were used to investigate how the fungal communities associated with four bryophyte species changed across an elevational gradient transitioning from conifer forest to the low‐alpine. Fungal biomass and OTU richness associated with the four moss hosts did not vary significantly across the gradient (P > 0.05), and both were more strongly affected by host and tissue type. Despite largely constant levels of fungal biomass, distinct shifts in community composition of fungi associated with Hylocomium, Pleurozium and Polytrichum occurred between the elevation zones of the gradient. This likely is a result of influence on fungal communities by major environmental factors such as temperature, directly or indirectly mediated by, or interacting with, the response of other components of the vegetation (i.e. the dominant trees). Fungal communities associated with Dicranum were an exception, exhibiting spatial autocorrelation between plots, and no significant structuring by elevation. Nevertheless, the detection of distinct fungal assemblages associated with a single host growing in different elevation zones along an elevational gradient is of particular relevance in the light of the ongoing changes in vegetation patterns in boreal and alpine systems due to global climate warming.     

Geographic variation of life‐history traits in the sand lizard,Lacerta agilis: testing Darwin's fecundity‐advantage hypothesis

The fecundity‐advantage hypothesis (FAH) explains larger female size relative to male size as a correlated response to fecundity selection. We explored FAH by investigating geographic variation in female reproductive output and its relation to sexual size dimorphism (SSD) in Lacerta agilis, an oviparous lizard occupying a major part of temperate Eurasia. We analysed how sex‐specific body size and SSD are associated with two putative indicators of fecundity selection intensity (clutch size and the slope of the clutch size–female size relationship) and with two climatic variables throughout the species range and across two widespread evolutionary lineages. Variation within the lineages provides no support for FAH. In contrast, the divergence between the lineages is in line with FAH: the lineage with consistently female‐biased SSD (L. a. agilis) exhibits higher clutch size and steeper fecundity slope than the lineage with an inconsistent and variable SSD (L. a. exigua). L. a. agilis shows lower offspring size (egg mass, hatchling mass) and higher clutch mass relative to female mass than L. a. exigua, that is both possible ways to enhance offspring number are exerted. As the SSD difference is due to male size (smaller males in L. a. agilis), fecundity selection favouring larger females, together with viability selection for smaller size in both sexes, would explain the female‐biased SSD and reproductive characteristics of L. a. agilis. The pattern of intraspecific life‐history divergence in L. agilis is strikingly similar to that between oviparous and viviparous populations of a related species Zootoca vivipara. Evolutionary implications of this parallelism are discussed.     

Variability in iodine in temperate seaweeds and iodine accumulation kinetics of Fucus vesiculosus and Laminaria digitata (Phaeophyceae,Ochrophyta)

The biogeochemistry of iodine in temperate coastal ecosystems is largely mediated by macroalgae, which act as a major biological sink and source of iodine. Their capacity to accumulate, retain and release iodine has been associated with abiotic and biotic stressors, but quantitative information is limited. We evaluated the seasonal iodine retention capacity of eleven macroalgal species belonging to different systematic groups, collected from two sites in Ireland. Iodine accumulation and retention were then further quantified in Fucus vesiculosus and Laminaria digitata in relation to I^? concentrations in seawater and temperature. In general, iodine contents were ~10¹–10² μmol · (g dw)^?1 for Laminariales, 10⁰–10¹ μmol · (g dw)^?1 for Fucales, 10^?1–10⁰ μmol · (g dw)^?1 for Rhodophyta, and 10^?1 μmol · (g dw)^?1 for Chlorophyta. Typically, algal iodine contents were above average in winter and below average in summer. Iodine accumulation in F. vesiculosus and L. digitata depended on I^? availability and followed the Michaelis‐Menten kinetic. The ratio of maximum accumulation rate to half accumulation coefficient (ρ_max: K _t) was 2.4 times higher for F. vesiculosus than for L. digitata , suggesting that F. vesiculosus was more efficient in iodine accumulation. Both species exhibited a temperature‐dependent net loss of iodine, and only an exposure to sufficient external I^? concentrations compensated for this loss. This study revealed that both environmental (e.g., I^? in seawater, temperature) and organismal (e.g., the status of the iodine storage pool) variables determine retention and variability in iodine in temperate seaweeds.     

Present and past depth distribution of bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus) in the Baltic Sea

This study aimed to (1) assess the present depth distribution of Fucus vesiculosus in the Baltic Sea and evaluate differences between districts and (2) assess long-term and recent changes in depth distribution and evaluate reasons for such changes. This was done through compilation and analysis of existing data (3356 obs.). Depth limits were shallowest in the Kattegat, the Danish Belts and the Øresund (∼1.5 m on average), located at the entrance of the Baltic Sea and markedly deeper in the central and inner parts of the Baltic (up to ∼4.5 m on average). This increase in depth limits to some extent matched the decline in salinity and may in part be explained by reduced competition when species diversity decreases successively along the Baltic salinity gradient. In the central and inner Baltic Sea, Secchi depths explained part of the variation (16%) in depth limits and the majority (85%) of the variation in maximum attainable depth limits whereas at the entrance of the Baltic Secchi depths explained a negligible part of the variation (∼1%). In most districts, depth limits moved upwards during the 20th century. In many cases this happened during or shortly after the 1960s/1970s, and was most likely due to eutrophication.