Masking Terror: How Women Contain Violence in Southern Sri Lanka; Scarred Minds: The Psychological Impact of War on Sri Lankan Tamils; The Ocean of Stories: Children's Imagination, Creativity, and Reconciliation in Eastern Sri Lanka

Masking Terror: How Women Contain Violence in Southern Sri Lanka. Alex Argenti-Pillen. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003. xv. 235 pp.
Scarred Minds: The Psychological Impact of War on Sri Lankan Tamils. Daya Somasunderam New Delhi: Sage, 1998. 353 pp.
The Ocean of Stories: Children's Imagination, Creativity, and Reconciliation in Eastern Sri Lanka. Patricia Lawrence. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Centre for Ethnic Studies, 2003.94 pp.     

Sri Lankan Prehistory Revealed

Book reviewed in this article:
The Prehistory of Sri Lanka: An Ecological Perspective . S. U. Deraniyagala. Memoir Volume 8, Parts 1 and 2. Sri Lanka: Department of Archaeological Survey, 1992. 813 pp.     

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in cats from Colombo, Sri Lanka

Cats are essential in the life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii because they are the only hosts that can excrete the environmentally resistant oocysts in nature. Nothing is known of the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in cats from Sri Lanka. Serum samples from 86 cats from Colombo, Sri Lanka, were tested for antibodies to T. gondii using the modified agglutination test; antibodies were found in 26 (30.2%) cats with titers of 1:25 in 4, 1:50 in 4, 1:100 in 3, 1:400 in 2, 1:800 in 3, 1:1,600 in 4, and 1:3,200 or higher in 6 cats. Seropositivity increased with age and was higher in stray cats versus pet cats. This is the first report of seroprevalence of T. gondii in cats from Sri Lanka.     

Illustrated key to the adult female <Emphasis Type="Italic">Anopheles</Emphasis> (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes of Sri Lanka

The identification of adult female anopheline mosquitoes is an important aspect in malaria surveillance and control strategy throughout the world, and taxonomic keys are being regularly revised and updated as new information becomes available. However, the currently available key to the anophelines of Sri Lanka is of limited use, because they were published more than 25 years ago. This paper presents an illustrated key for the identification of 23 adult female Anopheles mosquitoes which are currently recognized as local anopheline species in Sri Lanka.     

Twelve Years of Rabies Surveillance in Sri Lanka, 1999–2010

Background

Rabies is endemic in Sri Lanka, but little is known about the temporal and spatial trends of rabies in this country. Knowing these trends may provide insight into past control efforts and serve as the basis for future control measures. In this study, we analyzed distribution of rabies in humans and animals over a period of 12 years in Sri Lanka.

Methods

Accumulated data from 1999 through 2010 compiled by the Department of Rabies Diagnosis and Research, Medical Research Institute (MRI), Colombo, were used in this study.

Results

The yearly mean percentage of rabies-positive sample was 62.4% (47.6–75.9%). Three-fourths of the rabies-positive samples were from the Colombo, Gampaha, and Kalutara districts in Western province, followed by Galle in Southern province. A high percentage of the rabies samples were from dogs (85.2%), followed by cats (7.9%), humans (3.8%), wild animals (2.0%), and livestock (1.1%). Among wild animals, mongooses were the main victims followed by civets. The number of suspect human rabies cases decreased gradually in Sri Lanka, although the number of human samples submitted for laboratory confirmation increased.

Conclusions

The number of rabid dogs has remained relatively unchanged, but the number of suspect human rabies is decreasing gradually in Sri Lanka. These findings indicate successful use of postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) by animal bite victims and increased rabies awareness. PEP is free of charge and is supplied through government hospitals by the Ministry of Health, Sri Lanka. Our survey shows that most positive samples were received from Western and Southern provinces, possibly because of the ease of transporting samples to the laboratory. Submissions of wild animal and livestock samples should be increased by creating more awareness among the public. Better rabies surveillance will require introduction of molecular methods for detection and the establishment of more regional rabies diagnostic laboratories.     

Book Reviews

Book reviewed in this article:
Orchid Photography. Charles Marden Fitch. 96 pp., over 150 colour photographs. American Orchid Society, 6000 South Olive Avenue, West Palm Beach, Florida 33405.
Collins Photo Guide to Orchids of Britain and Europe. Pierre Delforge. 480 pp., 812 colour photographs.
Flowers of Sri Lanka. S.R. Kottegoda. 247 pp., 411 colour photographs. Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka, Colombo 07. 1994.     

Anopheles culicifacies Y-chromosome dimorphism indicates sibling species (B and E) with different malaria vector potential in Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka, malaria is transmitted mainly by Anopheles culicifacies Giles sensu lato (Diptera: Culicidae). In India, this nominal taxon comprises sibling species A, B, C, D and E, distinguished by their chromosome morphology. Species B (identified by polytene chromosome sequence Xab, 2g1 + h1) is not such an efficient vector of malaria as other members of the An. culicifacies complex in India. All specimens of An. culicifacies s.l. examined from Sri Lanka possess Xab, 2g1 + h1 polytenes, previously interpreted as species B, despite their important vector status. Recently, species E was described from Rameshwaram Island (Tamil Nadu, India) between Sri Lanka and the Indian mainland, where both species B and E are sympatric. Species B and E share polytene sequence Xab, 2g1 + h1 but differ by the mitotic Y-chromosome being acrocentric in species B, submetacentric in species E, the latter implicated as vector of vivax malaria. From May 1999 to January 2000, we surveyed Y-chromosomes of male progeny from An. culicifacies Xab, 2g1 + h1 females collected from cattle bait in diverse malarious districts of Sri Lanka: Badulla, Monaragala, Puttalam and Trincomalee. Karyotypes of readable quality were obtained from 42/83 families examined, with overall proportions 24% acrocentric and 76% submetacentric Y-chromosome carriers, both types being sympatric in at least 3/4 localities sampled. By analogy with the situation on Rameshwaram Island, we interpret these observations to demonstrate widespread presence of two members of the An. culicifacies complex in Sri Lanka, their karyotypes being compatible with species B and E, the latter predominant and having greater vector potential.     

Some lignicolous marine fungi from Sri Lanka

Koch, J. 1982. Some lignicolous marine fungi from Sri Lanka. – Nord. J. Bot. 2 : 163–169. Copenhagen. ISSN 0107–055X.
Twenty–seven marine fungi are reported from intertidal wood collected in the Indian Ocean at Sri Lanka. One new genus Nimbospora and two new species Nimbospora effusa and Halosarpheia bentotensis are described. A new combination Savoryella paucispora is proposed. Obervations are presented on some poorly known and interesting species.     

Anthropologizing Sri Lanka: A Eurocentric Misadventure.

Anthropologizing Sri Lanka:. Eurocentric Misadventure. Susantha Goonatilake. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001. 306 pp.     

Validation of a Sinhalese translation of the Oral Health Impact Profile-14 for use with older adults

Objective : To test the psychometric properties of a Sinhalese translation of the OHIP‐14 scale for use among older adults in Sri Lanka. Design : A cross‐sectional survey. The English version of the OHIP‐14 was translated in to Sinhalese, pre‐tested and subsequently administered to the subjects by a trained interviewer. Setting : Moratuwa — a densely populated urban area in the Western province of Sri Lanka. Subjects: 585 individuals aged 60 years and above. Main outcome measures : Reliability of the translated scale was assessed in terms of internal consistency using Cronbach's alpha. Construct validity was evaluated by examining the associations between perceived oral health status, perceived need for dental care and the OHIP scores. Results : Cronbach's alpha of the translated scale was 0.93. Corrected item‐total correlation coefficients ranged from 0.53–0.80. The highly significant associations between perceived oral health status, perceived need for dental care and the OHIP scores support the construct validity of the translated scale. Conclusion : The Sinhalese translation of the OHIP‐14 is a valid and reliable instrument to measure oral health related quality of life in older adults of Sri Lanka.     

Plant structural changes due to herbivory: Do changes in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aceria</Emphasis>-infested coconut fruits allow predatory mites to move under the perianth?

Being minute in size, eriophyoid mites can reach places that are small enough to be inaccessible to their predators. The coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis, is a typical example; it finds partial refuge under the perianth of the coconut fruit. However, some predators can move under the perianth of the coconut fruits and attack the coconut mite. In Sri Lanka, the phytoseiid mite Neoseiulus baraki, is the most common predatory mite found in association with the coconut mite. The cross-diameter of this predatory mite is c. 3 times larger than that of the coconut mite. Nevertheless, taking this predator’s flat body and elongated idiosoma into account, it is—relative to many other phytoseiid mites—better able to reach the narrow space under the perianth of infested coconut fruits. On uninfested coconut fruits, however, they are hardly ever observed under the perianth. Prompted by earlier work on the accessibility of tulip bulbs to another eriophyoid mite and its predators, we hypothesized that the structure of the coconut fruit perianth is changed in response to damage by eriophyoid mites and as a result predatory mites are better able to enter under the perianth of infested coconut fruits. This was tested in an experiment where we measured the gap between the rim of the perianth and the coconut fruit surface in three cultivars (‘Sri Lanka Tall’, ‘Sri Lanka Dwarf Green’ and ‘Sri Lanka Dwarf Green × Sri Lanka Tall’ hybrid) that are cultivated extensively in Sri Lanka. It was found that the perianth-fruit gap in uninfested coconut fruits was significantly different between cultivars: the cultivar ‘Sri Lanka Dwarf Green’ with its smaller and more elongated coconut fruits had a larger perianth-fruit gap. In the uninfested coconut fruits this gap was large enough for the coconut mite to creep under the perianth, yet too small for its predator N. baraki. However, when the coconut fruits were infested by coconut mites, the perianth-rim-fruit gap was not different among cultivars and had increased to such an extent that the space under the perianth became accessible to the predatory mites.     

Memories of ethnic violence in Sri Lanka among immigrant Tamils in the UK

This article contributes to recent studies on the relationship between ethnicity and memory in the formation of transnational communities. The focus of the article is migrant Tamils' memories of violence in Sri Lanka in 1958, in the aftermath of an act declaring Sinhala to be the sole language of administration in the country. The ways in which past violence is remembered by this overlooked older generation helps in understanding the particular impetus of the contemporary Tamil diaspora, which continues to play a key role in shaping the image of Sri Lanka abroad. Research on the formation of the diaspora must therefore be situated within a more concrete history of relations between Sinhalese and Tamils in post-independence Sri Lanka.     

A new rhizomatous Oryza species (Poaceae) from Sri Lanka

VAUGHAN, D. A., 1990. A new rhizomatous Oryza species (Poaceae) from Sri Lanka. The confusing taxonomy of the Sri Lankan Oryza officinalis complex is clarified with the recognition of a new rhizomatous species, Oryza rhizomatis Vaughan. This species has been found across the dry zone. The other species of the complex in Sri Lanka, O. eichingeri , occurs in moist habitats and is smaller and less common than 0. rhizomatis. The new species is described.     

Malaria control and elimination in sri lanka: documenting progress and success factors in a conflict setting

Background

Sri Lanka has a long history of malaria control, and over the past decade has had dramatic declines in cases amid a national conflict. A case study of Sri Lanka''s malaria programme was conducted to characterize the programme and explain recent progress.

Methods

The case study employed qualitative and quantitative methods. Data were collected from published and grey literature, district-level and national records, and thirty-three key informant interviews. Expenditures in two districts for two years – 2004 and 2009 – were compiled.

Findings

Malaria incidence in Sri Lanka has declined by 99.9% since 1999. During this time, there were increases in the proportion of malaria infections due to Plasmodium vivax, and the proportion of infections occurring in adult males. Indoor residual spraying and distribution of long-lasting insecticide-treated nets have likely contributed to the low transmission. Entomological surveillance was maintained. A strong passive case detection system captures infections and active case detection was introduced. When comparing conflict and non-conflict districts, vector control and surveillance measures were maintained in conflict areas, often with higher coverage reported in conflict districts. One of two districts in the study reported a 48% decline in malaria programme expenditure per person at risk from 2004 to 2009. The other district had stable malaria spending.

Conclusions/Significance

Malaria is now at low levels in Sri Lanka – 124 indigenous cases were found in 2011. The majority of infections occur in adult males and are due to P. vivax. Evidence-driven policy and an ability to adapt to new circumstances contributed to this decline. Malaria interventions were maintained in the conflict districts despite an ongoing war. Sri Lanka has set a goal of eliminating malaria by the end of 2014. Early identification and treatment of infections, especially imported ones, together with effective surveillance and response, will be critical to achieving this goal.     

Costs of Dengue Control Activities and Hospitalizations in the Public Health Sector during an Epidemic Year in Urban Sri Lanka

Background

Reported as a public health problem since the 1960s in Sri Lanka, dengue has become a high priority disease for public health authorities. The Ministry of Health is responsible for controlling dengue and other disease outbreaks and associated health care. The involvement of large numbers of public health staff in dengue control activities year-round and the provision of free medical care to dengue patients at secondary care hospitals place a formidable financial burden on the public health sector.

Methods

We estimated the public sector costs of dengue control activities and the direct costs of hospitalizations in Colombo, the most heavily urbanized district in Sri Lanka, during the epidemic year of 2012 from the Ministry of Health’s perspective. The financial costs borne by public health agencies and hospitals are collected using cost extraction tools designed specifically for the study and analysed retrospectively using a combination of activity-based and gross costing approaches.

Results

The total cost of dengue control and reported hospitalizations was estimated at US$3.45 million (US$1.50 per capita) in Colombo district in 2012. Personnel costs accounted for the largest shares of the total costs of dengue control activities (79%) and hospitalizations (46%). The results indicated a per capita cost of US$0.42 for dengue control activities. The average costs per hospitalization ranged between US$216–609 for pediatric cases and between US$196–866 for adult cases according to disease severity and treatment setting.

Conclusions

This analysis is a first attempt to assess the economic burden of dengue response in the public health sector in Sri Lanka. Country-specific evidence is needed for setting public health priorities and deciding about the deployment of existing or new technologies. Our results suggest that dengue poses a major economic burden on the public health sector in Sri Lanka.     

Cryptic species,taxonomic inflation,or a bit of both? New species phenomenon in Sri Lanka as suggested by a phylogeny of dwarf geckos (Reptilia,Squamata, Gekkonidae,Cnemaspis)

We evaluated the status of 16 of 22 recognized Sri Lankan Cnemaspis Strauch species, and flagged overlooked diversity with two mitochondrial (cyt b & ND2) and two nuclear markers (RAG1 & PDC) totalling 2829 base pairs. A fossil-calibrated timetree and sampling of other South Asian Cnemaspis provide insights into the diversification of the genus in peninsular India and Sri Lanka. Phylogenetic analyses consistently inferred two broad clades within South Asian Cnemaspis, with Sri Lankan species in two clades, which we call the podihuna and kandiana clades. Each Sri Lankan clade as a whole is sister to Indian taxa and nested within Indian lineages. Cnemaspis modigliani Das from Indonesia is a member of the kandiana clade. This suggests a minimum of two dispersal events between India and Sri Lanka and one between Sri Lanka/India and South-east Asia. South Asian Cnemaspis date back to at least the Eocene, in Sri Lanka to the early Miocene, with late Miocene diversification in the kandiana clade. All but one of the named species we sampled is likely to be valid, and 10 divergent unnamed lineages may warrant specific recognition. A resolution of Sri Lankan Cnemaspis taxonomy will require thorough sampling and the use of both morphological and molecular data.     

Age at marriage in Sri Lanka: stabilizing or declining?

Over the last four decades in Sri Lanka, age at first marriage for males increased marginally, and for females it rose considerably, but there has been no recent increase in female age at marriage. Among the younger cohorts, estimated ages at which some married indeed show a declining mean age at marriage. Coale-McNeil estimates indicate that there is no real decline in female age at marriage in Sri Lanka. Marriages were delayed as a result of economic hardship or increased mortality to the mid-1970s, but once the overall economy improved after 1977, more marriages took place. Female age at marriage in Sri Lanka remained slightly below 24 years, the age which is anticipated by younger cohorts, and this level is likely to persist for some time.     

Nature and bioactivities of endolichenic fungi in Pseudocyphellaria sp., Parmotrema sp. and Usnea sp. at Hakgala montane forest in Sri Lanka

Aim:  The aim of this study was to investigate the nature and bioactivities of endolichenic fungi in three abundant lichens, Pseudocyphellaria sp., Usnea sp. and Parmotrema sp. in the lower elevation of Hakgala montane forest in Sri Lanka.
Methods and Results:  Endolichenic fungal strains, fungi that live asymptomatically in the lichen thallus, much the same way as endophytic fungi live within healthy plant tissues, were isolated from three abundant lichen species, Pseudocyphellaria sp., Usnea sp. and Parmotrema sp., at Hakgala montane forest in Sri Lanka, using the surface sterilization method. Nine endolichenic fungal strains were isolated from Parmotrema sp. and Usnea sp. separately, while 11 endolichenic fungi were recovered from the lichen Pseudocyphellaria sp. Isolation of endolichenic fungus Chrysosporium sp. 2 was common to all three lichen species. Substrate utilization patterns and antifungal activities of eight endolichenic fungal species were evaluated and the results revealed that all the test fungi were able to produce at least one enzyme to utilize the test substrates. Nigrospora sp., Chrysosporium sp. 1 and 2 and Cladosporium sp. showed antifungal activities on growth of some selected plant pathogenic fungi.
Conclusions:  Endolichenic fungal strains (29) were isolated from the lichens Parmotrema sp., Usnea sp. and Pseudocyphellaria sp. in Sri Lanka. Chrysosporium sp. 2 was common in all three lichens. Some of these endolichenic fungal strains showed antifungal activities against common plant pathogenic fungi and they are capable of utilizing the substrates by producing specific enzymes.
Significance and Impact of the Study:  The diversity and prevalence of the endolichenic fungi have not been studied extensively and this is the first report of isolation and identification of endolichenic fungi in lichens available in Sri Lanka.