A global review of island endemic birds

Although fewer than one-fifth of the world's bird species are restricted to islands, over 90% of bird extinctions during historic times have occurred on islands. The major identified cause has been the effects of exotic animal species introduced by man; the largest number of documented extinctions has occurred on islands of the Pacific Ocean.
Some 39% (402) of threatened bird species are restricted to islands and more than 907; of these are endemic to a single geopolitical unit. The largest numbers occurring in such units are in Indonesia (91) and the Philippines (34). As a region, the Pacific holds more threatened species (110) than any other, including almost half of those considered Endangered and over 40% of the Vulnerable species.
Most threatened island species are forest-dwelling. A high proportion of the Endangered species use seasonal/temperate forest. While habitat destruction now poses the greatest overall threat to island birds (affecting over half the species restricted to islands), the presence of introduced species threatens 30 of the 66 Endangered species.
Although immediate extinctions of island species can best be averted by mitigating the effects of introductions, the removal of native forests will be a more severe problem in the longer term. There is an urgent need for ecologists to provide detailed information on the habitats of both threatened and endemic species so that more appropriate and effective conservation programmes can be developed.     

Protein abundance ratios for global studies of prokaryotes

The use of multidimensional capillary HPLC combined with MS/MS has allowed high qualitative and quantitative proteome coverage of prokaryotic organisms. The determination of protein abundance change between two or more conditions has matured to the point that false discovery rates can be very low and for smaller proteomes coverage is sufficiently high to explicitly consider false negative error. Selected aspects of using these methods for global protein abundance assessments are reviewed. These include instrumental issues that influence the reliability of abundance ratios; a comparison of sources of nonlinearity, errors, and data compression in proteomics and spotted cDNA arrays; strengths and weaknesses of spectral counting versus stable isotope metabolic labeling; and a survey of microbiological applications of global abundance analysis at the protein level. Proteomic results for two organisms that have been studied extensively using these methods are reviewed in greater detail. Spectral counting and metabolic labeling data are compared and the utility of proteomics for global gene regulation studies are discussed for the methanogenic Archaeon Methanococcus maripaludis. The oral pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis is discussed as an example of an organism where a large percentage of the proteome differs in relative abundance between the intracellular and extracellular phenotype.     

A review of state legislation on DNA forensic data banking.

Recent advances in DNA identification technology are making their way into the criminal law. States across the country are enacting legislation to create repositories for the storage both of DNA samples collected from convicted offenders and of the DNA profiles derived from them. These data banks will be used to assist in the resolution of future crimes. This study surveys existing state statues, pending legislation, and administrative regulations that govern these DNA forensic data banks. We critically analyzed these laws with respect to their treatment of the collection, storage, analysis, retrieval, and use of DNA and DNA data. We found much variation among data-banking laws and conclude that, while DNA forensic data banking carries tremendous potential for law enforcement, many states, in their rush to create data banks, have paid little attention to issues of quality control, quality assurance, and privacy. In addition, the sweep of some laws is unnecessarily broad. Legislative modifications are needed in many states to better safeguard civil liberties and individual privacy.     

A global review of weeds that can germinate from horse dung

To assess the diversity of weed seeds dispersed via horse dung, we reviewed 15 studies on seed germination from horse dung – six from Europe, four from North America, three from Australia and one study each from Africa and Central America. Seed from 249 species from 43 families have been identified germinating from horse dung. Almost two‐thirds of the species were forbs and 33% graminoids, with over half being perennials and 32% annuals. Nearly every species (totalling 99% of those reviewed) is considered a weed somewhere, with 47% recorded as invasive and 19% international environmental weeds. Of the 2739 non‐native plants that are naturalized in Australia, 156 have been shown to germinate from horse dung. This includes 16 of the 429 listed noxious weeds in Australia and two weeds of national significance. Seed from 105 of the 1596 invasive/noxious plant species in North America have also been identified germinating from horse dung. Seed traits including seed size, length, width and mass affect dispersal via horse dung. Habitat disturbance from trampling facilitates germination of seedlings from dung in both natural and experimental studies. Some studies found that plants germinating from dung reach maturity and flower, while others found plants did not survive due to unfavourable growing conditions in the field. The diversity of species with seed that can germinate from horse dung highlights the potential of horses to disperse a range of seed over long distances. Whether such dispersal is beneficial or harmful depends on the plant and the context in which it germinates. To maintain the conservation value of protected areas, it is important to understand and manage the different potential weed dispersal vectors, including horses.     

全球变化对土壤动物多样性的影响

陆地生态系统由地上和地下两部分组成,二者相互作用共同影响生态系统过程和功能.土壤动物在生物地球化学循环方面起着重要作用.随着人们对土壤动物在生态系统过程中重要性的认识,越来越多的研究表明全球变化对土壤动物多样性产生深刻影响.土地利用方式的改变、温度增加和降雨格局的改变能直接影响土壤动物多样性.CO2浓度和氮沉降的增加主要通过影响植物群落结构、组成和化学成分对土壤动物多样性产生间接影响.不同环境因子之间又能相互作用共同影响土壤动物多样性.了解全球变化背景下不同驱动因子及其交互作用对土壤动物多样性的影响,有助于更好地预测未来土壤动物多样性及相关生态学过程的变化.     

Species-genus ratios reflect a global history of diversification and range expansion in marine bivalves

The distribution of marine bivalve species among genera and higher taxa takes the form of the classic hollow curve, wherein few lineages are species rich and many are species poor. The distribution of species among genera (S/G ratio) varies with latitude, with temperate S/G's falling within the null expectation, and tropical and polar S/G's exceeding it. Here, we test several hypotheses for this polar overdominance in the species richness of small numbers of genera. We find a significant positive correlation between the latitudinal range of a genus and its species richness, both globally and within regions. Genus age and species richness are also positively related, but this relationship breaks down when the analysis is limited to genera endemic to climate zones or with narrow latitudinal ranges. The data suggest a link between speciation and range-expansion, with genera expanding out of the tropical latitudinal bins tending to speciate more prolifically, both globally and regionally. These genera contain more species within climate zones than taxa endemic to that zone. Range expansion thus appears to be fundamentally coupled with speciation, producing the skewed distribution of species among genera, both globally and regionally, whereas clade longevity is achieved through extinction -- resistance conferred by broad geographical ranges.     

The global amphibian trade flows through Europe: the need for enforcing and improving legislation

The global amphibian trade is suspected to have brought several species to the brink of extinction, and has led to the spread of amphibian pathogens. Moreover, international trade is not regulated for ~98 % of species. Here we outline patterns and complexity underlying global amphibian trade, highlighting some loopholes that need to be addressed, focusing on the European Union. In spite of being one of the leading amphibian importers, the EU’s current legislation is insufficient to prevent overharvesting of those species in demand or the introduction and/or spread of amphibian pathogens into captive and wild populations. We suggest steps to improve the policy (implementation and enforcement) framework, including (i) an identifier specifically for amphibians in the World Customs Organisation’s harmonised system, (ii) Parties to CITES should strive to include more species in the CITES appendices, and (iii) restriction or suspension of trade of threatened species, restricted-range species, and species protected in their country of origin. Commercial trade should not put survival of amphibian species further at risk.     

A review of global instruments to combat invasive alien species in forestry

Although impacts of biological invasions may be local, at least at first, the causes of introduction are mostly international. Through trade and transport pathways, countries both send and receive non-native species. There are numerous international and regional instruments, binding and nonbinding, which have been developed to deal with the problem of the movement of alien invasive species, however there are gaps in the current international framework. Global goals in the management of forestry-related threats from invasive alien species should include making best use of existing regulatory frameworks, investing more into global research initiatives, and targeting existing tools and resources more effectively. Given the lack of resources for many developing countries to undertake research, conduct risk assessments and implement quarantine measures, there is a need for regional and global support for countries that lack sufficient resources to implement effective phytosanitary systems.     

A global review of freshwater crayfish temperature tolerance,preference, and optimal growth

Conservation efforts, environmental planning, and management must account for ongoing ecosystem alteration due to a changing climate, introduced species, and shifting land use. This type of management can be facilitated by an understanding of the thermal ecology of aquatic organisms. However, information on thermal ecology for entire taxonomic groups is rarely compiled or summarized, and reviews of the science can facilitate its advancement. Crayfish are one of the most globally threatened taxa, and ongoing declines and extirpation could have serious consequences on aquatic ecosystem function due to their significant biomass and ecosystem roles. Our goal was to review the literature on thermal ecology for freshwater crayfish worldwide, with emphasis on studies that estimated temperature tolerance, temperature preference, or optimal growth. We also explored relationships between temperature metrics and species distributions. We located 56 studies containing information for at least one of those three metrics, which covered approximately 6 % of extant crayfish species worldwide. Information on one or more metrics existed for all 3 genera of Astacidae, 4 of the 12 genera of Cambaridae, and 3 of the 15 genera of Parastacidae. Investigations employed numerous methodological approaches for estimating these parameters, which restricts comparisons among and within species. The only statistically significant relationship we observed between a temperature metric and species range was a negative linear relationship between absolute latitude and optimal growth temperature. We recommend expansion of studies examining the thermal ecology of freshwater crayfish and identify and discuss methodological approaches that can improve standardization and comparability among studies.     

SK channel subtypes enable parallel optimized coding of behaviorally relevant stimulus attributes: A review

Ion channels play essential roles toward determining how neurons respond to sensory input to mediate perception and behavior. Small conductance calcium-activated potassium (SK) channels are found ubiquitously throughout the brain and have been extensively characterized both molecularly and physiologically in terms of structure and function. It is clear that SK channels are key determinants of neural excitability as they mediate important neuronal response properties such as spike frequency adaptation. However, the functional roles of the different known SK channel subtypes are not well understood. Here we review recent evidence from the electrosensory system of weakly electric fish suggesting that the function of different SK channel subtypes is to optimize the processing of independent but behaviorally relevant stimulus attributes. Indeed, natural sensory stimuli frequently consist of a fast time-varying waveform (i.e., the carrier) whose amplitude (i.e., the envelope) varies slowly and independently. We first review evidence showing how somatic SK2 channels mediate tuning and responses to carrier waveforms. We then review evidence showing how dendritic SK1 channels instead determine tuning and optimize responses to envelope waveforms based on their statistics as found in the organism's natural environment in an independent fashion. The high degree of functional homology between SK channels in electric fish and their mammalian orthologs, as well as the many important parallels between the electrosensory system and the mammalian visual, auditory, and vestibular systems, suggest that these functional roles are conserved across systems and species.     

A review on greywater reuse: quality,risks, barriers and global scenarios

Greywater is wastewater collected from household sources without input from toilet or commode streams. Greywater represent ca. 65% of total household wastewaters globally. Different aspects of greywater, including its production sources, its characteristics, the barriers and the global scenarios of its reuse, have been critically reviewed in this paper. Given the current projections on acute water scarcity in many regions of the world, the importance of water management cannot be overlooked and a decentralized approach, segregating wastewater streams of a household with proper sanitation is a potential option for recycling greywater. This paper aims to explore the improvements achieved in the reuse of greywater. Therefore, reutilization rates were estimated, hazards and risks associated with the use of untreated greywater were analyzed were summarized. Guidelines for greywater treatment were established and barriers for successful implementation of reuse strategies were identified. Global scenarios of successful implementations of greywater reuse were presented.

     

A PCR-based method of identifying species-specific repeated DNAs.

A PCR-based method is described to facilitate the identification of DNA fragments that are highly repeated and species-specific. The precision of the technique was demonstrated by cloning a fragment that occurred in a high number of copies in the plant species Medicago granadensis but in a low number of copies in 17 other Medicago species and Melilotus officinalis. This method should greatly accelerate the isolation and cloning of short and long interspersed nuclear elements with species-specific distributions. Such clones should prove useful in studies of phylogenetic relationships in the identification of interspecific hybrids, as in situ chromosome markers and other applications.     

Response of seagrass indicators to shifts in environmental stressors: A global review and management synthesis

Although seagrass-based indicators are widely used to assess coastal ecosystem status, there is little universality in their application. Matching the plethora of available indicators to specific management objectives requires a detailed knowledge of their species-specific sensitivities and their response time to environmental stressors. We conducted an extensive survey of experimental studies to determine the sensitivity and response time of seagrass indicators to ecosystem degradation and recovery. We identified seagrass size and indicator type (i.e. level of biological organization of the measure) as the main factors affecting indicator sensitivity and response time to degradation and recovery. While structural and demographic parameters (e.g. shoot density, biomass) show a high and unspecific sensitivity, biochemical/physiological indicators present more stressor-specific responses and are the most sensitive detecting early phases of environmental improvement. Based on these results we present a simple decision tree to assist ecosystem managers to match adequate and reliable indicators to specific management goals.     

Speciation and legislation

Abstract

The chemical speciation of milks containing trace levels of aluminium defies experimental analysis because of the extremely low concentrations and labile equilibria present. Nevertheless, atomic absorption spectrophotometry data in combination with precisely determined formation constants have been used to construct speciation models simulated using the ECCLES computer program and the Cardiff thermodynamic database.

Formation constants for the Al³⁺-citrate, -succinate, -picolinate, and -malate systems are reported for 37°C and I = 150 mmol dm^?3. Total aluminium concentrations in a range of commercially available bovine milks are given.

In general, the major aluminium species present are charged citrate complexes which present little or no apparent threat to a healthy human as such complexes will not be absorbed through the intestinal walls. However, the importance of phosphate binding is revealed and further studies recommended.     

A species-specific view of song representation in a sensorimotor nucleus

Songbirds constitute a powerful model system for the investigation of how complex vocal communication sounds are represented and generated, offering a neural system in which the brain areas involved in auditory, motor and auditory–motor integration are well known. One brain area of considerable interest is the nucleus HVC. Neurons in the HVC respond vigorously to the presentation of the bird’s own song and display song-related motor activity. In the present paper, we present a synthesis of neurophysiological studies performed in the HVC of one songbird species, the canary (Serinus canaria). These studies, by taking advantage of the singing behavior and song characteristics of the canary, have examined the neuronal representation of the bird’s own song in the HVC. They suggest that breeding cues influence the degree of auditory selectivity of HVC neurons for the bird’s own song over its time-reversed version, without affecting the contribution of spike timing to the information carried by these two song stimuli. Also, while HVC neurons are collectively more responsive to forward playback of the bird’s own song than to its temporally or spectrally modified versions, some are more broadly tuned, with an auditory responsiveness that extends beyond the bird’s own song. Lastly, because the HVC is also involved in song production, we discuss the peripheral control of song production, and suggest that interspecific variations in song production mechanisms could be exploited to improve our understanding of the functional role of the HVC in respiratory–vocal coordination.