Emerging Methods and Applications to Decrypt Allostery in Proteins and Nucleic Acids

Many large protein-nucleic acid complexes exhibit allosteric regulation. In these systems, the propagation of the allosteric signaling is strongly coupled to conformational dynamics and catalytic function, challenging state-of-the-art analytical methods. Here, we review established and innovative approaches used to elucidate allosteric mechanisms in these complexes. Specifically, we report network models derived from graph theory and centrality analyses in combination with molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, introducing novel schemes that implement the synergistic use of graph theory with enhanced simulations methods and ab-initio MD. Accelerated MD simulations are used to construct “enhanced network models”, describing the allosteric response over long timescales and capturing the relation between allostery and conformational changes. “Ab-initio network models” combine graph theory with ab-initio MD and quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) simulations to describe the allosteric regulation of catalysis by following the step-by-step dynamics of biochemical reactions. This approach characterizes how the allosteric regulation changes from reactants to products and how it affects the transition state, revealing a tense-to-relaxed allosteric regulation along the chemical step. Allosteric models and applications are showcased for three paradigmatic examples of allostery in protein-nucleic acid complexes: (i) the nucleosome core particle, (ii) the CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing system and (iii) the spliceosome. These methods and applications create innovative protocols to determine allosteric mechanisms in protein-nucleic acid complexes that show tremendous promise for medicine and bioengineering.     

Genome Editing with CRISPR-Cas9:Can It Get Any Better?

The CRISPR-Cas revolution is taking place in virtually all fields of life sciences.Harnessing DNA cleavage with the CRISPR-Cas9 system of Streptococcus pyogenes has proven to be extraordinarily simple and efficient,relying only on the design of a synthetic single guide RNA(sgRNA) and its co-expression with Cas9.Here,we review the progress in the design of sgRNA from the original dual RNA guide for S.pyogenes and Staphylococcus aureus Cas9(SpCas9 and SaCas9).New assays for genome-wide identification of offtargets have provided important insights into the issue of cleavage specificity in vivo.At the same time,the on-target activity of thousands of guides has been determined.These data have led to numerous online tools that facilitate the selection of guide RNAs in target sequences.It appears that for most basic research applications,cleavage activity can be maximized and off-targets minimized by carefully choosing guide RNAs based on computational predictions.Moreover,recent studies of Cas proteins have further improved the flexibility and precision of the CRISPR-Cas toolkit for genome editing.Inspired by the crystal structure of the complex of sgRNA-SpCas9 bound to target DNA,several variants of SpCas9 have recently been engineered,either with novel protospacer adjacent motifs(PAMs) or with drastically reduced off-targets.Novel Cas9 and Cas9-like proteins called Cpf 1 have also been characterized from other bacteria and will benefit from die insights obtained from SpCas9.Genome editing with CRISPR-Cas9 may also progress with better understanding and control of cellular DNA repair pathways activated after Cas9-induced DNA cleavage.     

CRISPR-Cas9技术在细菌耐药性防控研究进展

近年来,多种新型耐药基因的出现和全球性流行,严重威胁了全球公众健康。CRISPR-Cas9系统(clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-CRISPR associated protein 9 system)是细菌的一种适应性免疫系统,可切割耐药基因、抵御外来核酸入侵,现已作为一种新型基因编辑工具应用于防控细菌耐药性研究。本团队已建立了一种单质粒介导靶向mcr-1基因的CRISPR-Cas9系统,能有效并特异性消除黏菌素耐药大肠杆菌中的mcr-1,恢复其对黏菌素的敏感性。同时也发现在临床中应用还需要优化其递送方式。本文对近几年该技术在细菌耐药性防控方面的研究进展进行了综述,包括CRISPR-Cas9系统的发现过程、作用机制、递送方式、在体外检测实验结果的进展以及当前存在的问题等方面,以期为防控细菌耐药性提供新思路。     

Inhibition mechanisms of CRISPR-Cas9 by AcrIIA17 and AcrIIA18

Mobile genetic elements such as phages and plasmids have evolved anti-CRISPR proteins (Acrs) to suppress CRISPR-Cas adaptive immune systems. Recently, several phage and non-phage derived Acrs including AcrIIA17 and AcrIIA18 have been reported to inhibit Cas9 through modulation of sgRNA. Here, we show that AcrIIA17 and AcrIIA18 inactivate Cas9 through distinct mechanisms. AcrIIA17 inhibits Cas9 activity through interference with Cas9-sgRNA binary complex formation. In contrast, AcrIIA18 induces the truncation of sgRNA in a Cas9-dependent manner, generating a shortened sgRNA incapable of triggering Cas9 activity. The crystal structure of AcrIIA18, combined with mutagenesis studies, reveals a crucial role of the N-terminal β-hairpin in AcrIIA18 for sgRNA cleavage. The enzymatic inhibition mechanism of AcrIIA18 is different from those of the other reported type II Acrs. Our results add new insights into the mechanistic understanding of CRISPR-Cas9 inhibition by Acrs, and also provide valuable information in the designs of tools for conditional manipulation of CRISPR-Cas9.     

Engineering Resistance Against Viruses in Field Crops Using CRISPR- Cas9

Food security is threatened by various biotic stresses that affect the growth and production of agricultural crops. Viral diseases have become a serious concern for crop plants as they incur huge yield losses. The enhancement of host resistance against plant viruses is a priority for the effective management of plant viral diseases. However, in the present context of the climate change scenario, plant viruses are rapidly evolving, resulting in the loss of the host resistance mechanism. Advances in genome editing techniques, such as CRISPR-Cas9 [clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats-CRISPR-associated 9], have been recognized as promising tools for the development of plant virus resistance. CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing tool is widely preferred due to high target specificity, simplicity, efficiency, and reproducibility. CRISPR-Cas9 based virus resistance in plants has been successfully achieved by gene targeting and cleaving the viral genome or altering the plant genome to enhance plant innate immunity. In this article, we have described the CRISPR-Cas9 system, mechanism of plant immunity against viruses and highlighted the use of the CRISPR-Cas9 system to engineer virus resistance in plants. We also discussed prospects and challenges on the use of CRISPR-Cas9-mediated plant virus resistance in crop improvement.     

基于CRISPR-Cas9技术的基因治疗研究进展

CRISPR-Cas9系统是细菌在与噬菌体抗争的进化过程中产生的一种抵御外源DNA入侵的机制,能有效识别并剪切外源DNA。基于其识别切除外源DNA的原理,CRISPR-Cas9系统被开发成为新一代基因编辑工具。与ES打靶、ZFN、TALEN等技术途径相比,CRISPR-Cas9系统操作简便、效率高、成本低,有着极其广阔的应用前景。本文整理了近年内有关CRISPR-Cas9系统的最新文献报道,对该系统工作原理以及针对基因治疗的研究进展进行综述。     

CRISPR-Cas9研究进展及在基因治疗上的应用

CRISPR-Cas9[Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats（CRISPR）/CRISPR-associated （Cas）9]是近年兴起的一种高特异性和高效的基因编辑新技术,由向导RNA（single guide RNA,sgRNA）和cas9（CRISPR-associated 9）蛋白组成,引起DNA位点特异性双链断裂（double-strand breaks,DSBs）,引发同源重组修复（homology-directed repair,HDR）或非同源末端连接修复（non-homologous end joining,NHEJ）,达到靶基因修饰的作用。CRISPR-Cas9技术自发现以来,因其便于操作、花费较低、高特异性、可同时打靶任意数量基因等优点而被应用。近年研究显示,对于一些遗传性疾病,可通过CRISPR-Cas9精确的基因编辑破坏致病的内源基因、改正引起疾病的突变体或插入新的保护性基因进行治疗,该技术为基因治疗开启了一个新方向。主要从CRISPR-Cas9结构、作用机制及在疾病基因治疗上的应用等方面进行了综述。     

基于CRISPR-Cas9的筛选文库类型及应用

文库筛选技术广泛应用于生命科学研究各领域,加速了生物医药基础科研和临床实践的进展。本文对基于CRISPR-Cas9的文库类型和应用进行综述。CRISPR-Cas9文库包括敲除、活化和抑制文库。敲除文库通过Cas9/sgRNA靶向切割DNA序列,产生移码突变进行基因敲除。活化文库包括两种：一种是dCas9/sgRNA与转录活化蛋白质融合,例如dCas9-SAM,dCas9-SunTag和dCas9-VPR系统;另一种是dCas9与表观遗传修饰酶融合,例如dCas9-Tet1和dCas9-p300系统。CRISPR-Cas9抑制文库通过dCas9与表观遗传修饰蛋白质融合,抑制转录,例如dCas9-KRAB和dCas9-Dnmt3a系统。目前,CRISPR-Cas9文库广泛用于功能基因筛选、药物靶点和耐药靶点筛选、病毒靶点筛选和揭示信号通路,并在基因互作筛选及揭示顺式调节元件功能等方面初步展现其优势。CRISPR-Cas9文库优势在于其设计灵活、操作便捷、筛选高效。伴随基因编辑系统的研发,新的筛选文库靶向性和突变将更加精准,应用将更加拓展和深化。基于CRISPR-Cas9筛选文库不仅可以筛选病理和生理过程中的关键基因和非编码DNA,还可以揭示其发挥功能的分子机制,是剖析生命复杂调控网络的手术刀。     

Phylogeny of Cas9 determines functional exchangeability of dual-RNA and Cas9 among orthologous type II CRISPR-Cas systems

The CRISPR-Cas-derived RNA-guided Cas9 endonuclease is the key element of an emerging promising technology for genome engineering in a broad range of cells and organisms. The DNA-targeting mechanism of the type II CRISPR-Cas system involves maturation of tracrRNA:crRNA duplex (dual-RNA), which directs Cas9 to cleave invading DNA in a sequence-specific manner, dependent on the presence of a Protospacer Adjacent Motif (PAM) on the target. We show that evolution of dual-RNA and Cas9 in bacteria produced remarkable sequence diversity. We selected eight representatives of phylogenetically defined type II CRISPR-Cas groups to analyze possible coevolution of Cas9 and dual-RNA. We demonstrate that these two components are interchangeable only between closely related type II systems when the PAM sequence is adjusted to the investigated Cas9 protein. Comparison of the taxonomy of bacterial species that harbor type II CRISPR-Cas systems with the Cas9 phylogeny corroborates horizontal transfer of the CRISPR-Cas loci. The reported collection of dual-RNA:Cas9 with associated PAMs expands the possibilities for multiplex genome editing and could provide means to improve the specificity of the RNA-programmable Cas9 tool.     

Biochemical changes induced by grape seed extract and low level laser therapy administration during intraoral wound healing in rat liver: an experimental and in silico study

In the present study, the changes that occur in rat liver tissue as a result of the use of grape seed extract (GSE) and low level laser therapy (LLLT) in intraoral wound (IW) healing are analyzed using biochemical parameters. Diode laser application groups received 8 J/cm² dose LLLT once a day for 4 days (810 nm wavelength, continuous mode, 0.25 W, 9 s). As a result of the biological parameter analysis, it was determined that the oxidative damage caused by the IWs and recovery period on 7th and 14th days could be substantially removed with GSE applications that have antioxidant capacity especially in rat liver tissue. In addition, the active compound of grape seed, catechin is studied in the active site of glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) target using molecular modeling approaches. Post-processing molecular dynamics (MD) results for catechin is compared with a standard GSK3 inhibitor. MD simulations assisted for better understanding of inhibition mechanism and the crucial amino acids contributing in the ligand binding. These results along with a through free energy analysis of ligands using sophisticated simulations methods are quite striking and it suggests a greater future role for simulation in deciphering complex patterns of molecular mechanism in combination with methods for understanding drug-receptor interactions.     

Structural and dynamic insights into the HNH nuclease of divergent Cas9 species

CRISPR-Cas9 is a widely used biochemical tool with applications in molecular biology and precision medicine. The RNA-guided Cas9 protein uses its HNH endonuclease domain to cleave the DNA strand complementary to its endogenous guide RNA. In this study, novel constructs of HNH from two divergent organisms, G. stearothermophilus (GeoHNH) and S. pyogenes (SpHNH) were engineered from their respective full-length Cas9 proteins. Despite low sequence similarity, the X-ray crystal structures of these constructs reveal that the core of HNH surrounding the active site is conserved. Structure prediction of the full-length GeoCas9 protein using Phyre2 and AlphaFold2 also showed that the crystallographic construct of GeoHNH represents the structure of the domain within the full-length GeoCas9 protein. However, significant differences are observed in the solution dynamics of structurally conserved regions of GeoHNH and SpHNH, the latter of which was shown to use such molecular motions to propagate the DNA cleavage signal. Indeed, molecular simulations show that the intradomain signaling pathways, which drive SpHNH function, are non-specific and poorly formed in GeoHNH. Taken together, these outcomes suggest mechanistic differences between mesophilic and thermophilic Cas9 species.     

Protocol for MM/PBSA molecular dynamics simulations of proteins

Continuum solvent models have been employed in past years for understanding processes such as protein folding or biomolecular association. In the last decade, several attempts have been made to merge atomic detail molecular dynamics simulations with solvent continuum models. Among continuum models, the Poisson-Boltzmann solvent accessible surface area model is one of the oldest and most fundamental. Notwithstanding its wide usage for simulation of biomolecular electrostatic potential, the Poisson-Boltzmann equation has been very seldom used to obtain solvation forces for molecular dynamics simulation. We propose here a fast and reliable methodology to implement continuum forces in standard molecular mechanics and dynamics algorithms. Results for a totally unrestrained 1 ns molecular dynamics simulation of a small protein are quantitatively similar to results obtained by explicit solvent molecular dynamics simulations.     

Advances in CRISPR-Cas9 genome engineering: lessons learned from RNA interference

The discovery that the machinery of the Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9 bacterial immune system can be re-purposed to easily create deletions, insertions and replacements in the mammalian genome has revolutionized the field of genome engineering and re-invigorated the field of gene therapy. Many parallels have been drawn between the newly discovered CRISPR-Cas9 system and the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway in terms of their utility for understanding and interrogating gene function in mammalian cells. Given this similarity, the CRISPR-Cas9 field stands to benefit immensely from lessons learned during the development of RNAi technology. We examine how the history of RNAi can inform today''s challenges in CRISPR-Cas9 genome engineering such as efficiency, specificity, high-throughput screening and delivery for in vivo and therapeutic applications.     

Costs of CRISPR-Cas-mediated resistance in Streptococcus thermophilus

CRISPR-Cas is a form of adaptive sequence-specific immunity in microbes. This system offers unique opportunities for the study of coevolution between bacteria and their viral pathogens, bacteriophages. A full understanding of the coevolutionary dynamics of CRISPR-Cas requires knowing the magnitude of the cost of resisting infection. Here, using the gram-positive bacterium Streptococcus thermophilus and its associated virulent phage 2972, a well-established model system harbouring at least two type II functional CRISPR-Cas systems, we obtained different fitness measures based on growth assays in isolation or in pairwise competition. We measured the fitness cost associated with different components of this adaptive immune system: the cost of Cas protein expression, the constitutive cost of increasing immune memory through additional spacers, and the conditional costs of immunity during phage exposure. We found that Cas protein expression is particularly costly, as Cas-deficient mutants achieved higher competitive abilities than the wild-type strain with functional Cas proteins. Increasing immune memory by acquiring up to four phage-derived spacers was not associated with fitness costs. In addition, the activation of the CRISPR-Cas system during phage exposure induces significant but small fitness costs. Together these results suggest that the costs of the CRISPR-Cas system arise mainly due to the maintenance of the defence system. We discuss the implications of these results for the evolution of CRISPR-Cas-mediated immunity.     

Genome-Wide CRISPR-Cas9 Screen Identifies MicroRNAs That Regulate Myeloid Leukemia Cell Growth

Mammalian microRNA expression is dysregulated in human cancer. However, the functional relevance of many microRNAs in the context of tumor biology remains unclear. Using CRISPR-Cas9 technology, we performed a global loss-of-function screen to simultaneously test the functions of individual microRNAs and protein-coding genes during the growth of a myeloid leukemia cell line. This approach identified evolutionarily conserved human microRNAs that suppress or promote cell growth, revealing that microRNAs are extensively integrated into the molecular networks that control tumor cell physiology. miR-155 was identified as a top microRNA candidate promoting cellular fitness, which we confirmed with two distinct miR-155-targeting CRISPR-Cas9 lentiviral constructs. Further, we performed anti-correlation functional profiling to predict relevant microRNA-tumor suppressor gene or microRNA-oncogene interactions in these cells. This analysis identified miR-150 targeting of p53, a connection that was experimentally validated. Taken together, our study describes a powerful genetic approach by which the function of individual microRNAs can be assessed on a global level, and its use will rapidly advance our understanding of how microRNAs contribute to human disease.