Comparison of inverse-dynamics musculo-skeletal models of AL 288-1 Australopithecus afarensis and KNM-WT 15000 Homo ergaster to modern humans, with implications for the evolution of bipedalism

Size and proportions of the postcranial skeleton differ markedly between Australopithecus afarensis and Homo ergaster, and between the latter and modern Homo sapiens. This study uses computer simulations of gait in models derived from the best-known skeletons of these species (AL 288-1, Australopithecus afarensis, 3.18 million year ago) and KNM-WT 15000 (Homo ergaster, 1.5-1.8 million year ago) compared to models of adult human males and females, to estimate the required muscle power during bipedal walking, and to compare this with those in modern humans. Skeletal measurements were carried out on a cast of KNM-WT 15000, but for AL 288-1 were taken from the literature. Muscle attachments were applied to the models based on their position relative to the bone in modern humans. Joint motions and moments from experiments on human walking were input into the models to calculate muscle stress and power. The models were tested in erect walking and 'bent-hip bent-knee' gait. Calculated muscle forces were verified against EMG activity phases from experimental data, with reference to reasonable activation/force delays. Calculated muscle powers are reasonably comparable to experimentally derived metabolic values from the literature, given likely values for muscle efficiency. The results show that: 1) if evaluated by the power expenditure per unit of mass (W/kg) in walking, AL 288-1 and KNM-WT 15000 would need similar power to modern humans; however, 2) with distance-specific parameters as the criteria, AL 288-1 would require to expend relatively more muscle power (W/kg.m(-1)) in comparison to modern humans. The results imply that in the evolution of bipedalism, body proportions, for example those of KNM-WT 15000, may have evolved to obtain an effective application of muscle power to bipedal walking over a long distance, or at high speed.     

Operant control of human eye movements

Saccade and smooth pursuit are the eye movements used by primates to shift gaze. In this article we review evidence for the effects of reinforcement on several dimensions of these responses such as their latencies, velocities or amplitudes. We propose that these responses are operant behaviours controlled by their consequences on performance of visually guided tasks. Studying the conditions under which particular eye movement patterns might emerge from the cumulative effects of reinforcement provides critical insights about how motor responses are attuned to environmental exigencies.     

Gait variability magnitude but not structure is altered in essential tremor

Essential tremor (ET) is a common tremor disorder affecting postural/action tremor of the upper extremities and midline. Recent research revealed a cerebellar-like deficit during tandem gait in persons with ET, though spatiotemporal variability during normal gait in ET has been relatively ignored. The first purpose of this study was to investigate gait variability magnitude and structure in ET as compared to healthy older adults (HOA). To address this issue, 11 ET and 11 age-matched HOAs walked on a treadmill for 5 min at preferred walking speeds. HOAs walked for an additional minute while speed-matched to an ET participant. The second purpose was to describe the clinical correlates of gait variability in this population. To address this aim, 31 persons with ET walked on a treadmill for 5 min and completed the Fahn–Tolosa–Marin Tremor Rating Scale. Gait variability magnitude was derived by calculating coefficients of variation in stride length, stride time, step length, step time, and step width. Gait variability structure was derived using a detrended fluctuation analysis technique. At preferred walking speeds, ET participants walked significantly slower with significantly increased variability magnitude in all five spatiotemporal gait parameters. At speed-matched walking, ET participants exhibited significantly higher step width variability. Gait variability structure was not different between groups. We also observed that gait variability magnitude was predicted by severity of upper extremity and midline tremors. This study revealed that self-selected gait in ET is characterized by high variability that is associated with tremor severity in the upper extremity and midline.     

Variability of motoneuron activation and the modulation of force production in a postural reflex of the hermit crab abdomen

The tri-phasic reflex in hermit crab (Pagurus pollicarus) abdomen is triggered by local mechanoreceptors and is essential for postural control. The reflex consists of three stereotypical phases: a brief, high-frequency burst, a transient cessation of firing, and a late-discharge that is much lower in frequency than the initial burst. To better understand the reflex generation of force, variability of motoneuron discharge in each of five parameters of reflex activation was assessed. An intracellular current injection routine was used to correlate each of these parameters with force production. Phase 3 motoneuron firing frequency showed the greatest correlation with force production. Phase 3 spike rate increased as a function of phase 2 duration, but the relationship between phase 2 duration and force produced by the reflex was weak. Junction potential amplitude decreased as phase 2 duration increased, and we hypothesize that this trend counteracts the increased phase 3 frequency, explaining the weak relationship of phase 2 duration and force production. Surprisingly, when phase 3 frequency was held constant and phase 2 was increased in duration, the concurrent decrease in junction potential amplitude did not reduce force production.     

Natural variability in the mycelial form of emmonsia crescens

A range of variations in colony characteristics and microscopical morphology of Emmonsia crescens Emmons & Jellison 1960 have been studied. A total of 13 strains of the mycelial stage of the fungus were examined in detail. The isolates originated from the lungs of 8 species of wild mammals collected in Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, France and U.S.S.R. According to their colony appearance the strains were classified into 3 groups as follows: powdered, floccose and fluffy. The microscopic structure of the colonies was relatively unique, differences were found in the size of aleuries and the type of their walls. The morphological variability of E. crescens was not markedly influenced by host species or geographic origin of strains.     

物种多样性与生态系统功能时间变异性的关系研究进展

近年来物种多样性的急剧丧失使得物种多样性与生态系统功能的时间变异性的关系及其机制问题的研究成为了生态学研究的一个热点。综述了物种多样性与群落集合性质变异性以及种群性质变异性的关系及其机制的最新研究成果：1、理论上探讨造成物种多样性与群落集合性质变异性负相关关系的机制包括：抽样效应、资源利用分化假说、统计平均效应、保险假说、种群变异性的均匀度效应等;但实验研究对理论预期的支持并不是普遍的;2．多样性与种群变异性之间的关系主要依赖于均值-方差尺度系数Z;理论上大部分自然群落是种群变异性应该随着多样性的增加而增加;但有研究表明：在变动环境中多样性对单个组分物种的种群水平有稳定性作用;而经验研究并不能得出多样性对种群变异性效应的清晰模式。讨论了目前的理论和实验研究中存在的和今后研究中需要认真思考的问题。     

Variations in leaf epicuticular n-alkanes in some Broussonetia,Ficus and Humulus species

n-Alkanes are biosynthesized from very long-chain fatty acid wax precursors and its distribution grants the most useful taxonomic contribution for plant species. In current study, five species from three genera of Moraceae family were sampled separately from three areas (Mountain Jin-yun, Mountain Jin-fo and Bei-bei) in Chongqing, China, namely, Broussonetia papyrifera, Broussonetia kazinoki, Ficus virens, Ficus tikoua, and Humulus scandens. The amounts of n-alkanes in epicuticular wax enabled discrimination among areas, varying from 4.9 μg cm⁻² to 16.9 μg cm⁻² in Mountain Jin-yun, 6.9 μg cm⁻² to 20.5 μg cm⁻² in Bei–bei, and 4.7 μg cm⁻² to 61.7 μg cm⁻² in Mountain Jin-fo, respectively. Among the five species, the amount of n-alkanes was the highest in B. papyrifera and the lowest in F. tikoua for all areas, showing high species variation. The most abundant n-alkanes in all investigated species were two odd-numbered n-alkanes, i.e., C₂₉ and C₃₁. The epicuticular waxes of H. scandens from Bei-bei had a higher relative abundance of C₂₉ than other species from Mountain Jin-yun and Mountain Jin-fo. The chain length of n-alkanes from Bei-bei was longer than that from other areas. The even/odd predominance (EOP) or odd/even predominance (OEP) occurred in short-chain n-alkanes of plant epicuticular wax might be correlated with their growing environments. All Carbon Preference Index (CPIs) and Average Chain Length (ACLs) from Bei-bei were lower than those from other sampling areas, mainly attributing to the higher numbers of short- and mid-chain n-alkanes in plants from Bei-bei. Cluster analysis revealed that H. scandens from Bei-bei and F. virens from Mountain Jin-yun were different from other species. Based on these findings, it seems that environmental conditions contribute to the complex patterns and variation of n-alkanes and different plant species had different responses to environment changes. The distribution of n-alkanes could be a good indicator to distinguish plant species under different growing conditions before other obvious morphological changes could be observed.     

Forces in the spider orb web

Summary Pretensile forces were measured in individual threads of intact spider webs. In the orb web of Araneus diadematus forces decrease from mooring threads to frame threads and radii, a typical ratio being 1071. The smaller number of radii in the upper than in the lower half of the orb is paralleled by force ratios of 21 to 31. A similar difference between radii built first during web construction and radii added after completion of the frame underlines the importance of the former as part of the scaffolding. High tensions in the auxiliary spiral stabilize the radii in addition to providing a pathway for the spider when inserting the sticky spiral. Radial pretension (F) changes with spider mass (m). F/m is similar for different animals indicating an adaptation of radial forces to those resulting from spider mass. Several observations suggest tension control by the spider. When forced to anchor its web to thin flexible rods tension in the threads remains in the normal range. Tension values are similar in the webs of A. diadematus, Zygiella x-notata, Nuctenea umbratica, and Nephila clavipes indicating independence from details of web geometry. Only the mooring threads of Nephila show unusually large forces suggesting a narrower working range of tensions for the catching area than for the scaffolding.     

Interaction against different environmental dynamics during a leg extension task is controlled by temporal rather than amplitude scaling of muscular activity

Force exertion against different mechanical environments can affect motor control strategies in order to account for the altered environmental dynamics and to maintain the ability to produce force. Here, we investigated the change of muscular activity of selected muscles of the lower extremities while the participants interacted with an external mechanical device of variable stability. Twenty-five healthy participants exerted force against the device by performing a unilateral ballistic leg extension task under 1 or 3 degrees of freedom (DoF). Directional force data and electromyographic responses from four leg muscles (TA, VM, GM, PL) were recorded. Muscle responses to the altered experimental conditions were analyzed by calculating time to peak electrical activity (TTP), peak electrical activity (PEA), slope of EMG-signal and muscle activity. It was found that neuromuscular system adjustments to the task are expressed mainly by temporal (TTP) rather than amplitude (PEA) scaling of muscular activity. This change was specific for the investigated muscles. Moreover, a selective increase of muscle activity occurred while increasing external DoF. This scheme was accompanied by a significant reduction of applicable force against the device in the unstable 3 DoF condition. The findings suggest that orchestration of movement control is linked to environmental dynamics also affecting the ability to produce force under dynamic conditions. The adjustments of the neuromuscular system are rather temporal in nature being consistent with the impulse timing hypothesis of motor control.