NMDA receptor antagonism disrupts the development of morphine analgesic tolerance in male, but not female C57BL/6J mice

Multiple studies demonstrate that coadministration of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists with the opioid agonist morphine attenuates the development of analgesic tolerance. Sex differences in the effects of noncompetitive, but not competitive NMDA receptor antagonists on acute morphine analgesia, have been reported in mice, yet the role of sex in modulation of morphine tolerance by NMDA receptor antagonists has yet to be addressed. Therefore, we tested whether there is a sex difference in the effect of NMDA receptor antagonists on the development of morphine analgesic tolerance in C57BL/6J mice. Acutely, at a dose required to affect morphine tolerance in male mice, the noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist dizocilpine (MK-801) prolonged morphine analgesia similarly in both sexes in the hot plate and tail withdrawal assays. In the hot plate assay, coadministration of MK-801 or the competitive antagonist 3-(2-carboxpiperazin-4-yl)propyl-1-phosphanoic acid (CPP) with morphine attenuated the development of tolerance in male mice, while having no effect in females. Like normal and sham females, ovariectomized mice were similarly insensitive to the attenuation of morphine tolerance by MK-801 in the hot plate assay. Surprisingly, in the tail withdrawal assay, MK-801 facilitated the development of morphine-induced hyperalgesia and tolerance in males but not females. The results demonstrate that male mice are more sensitive to modulation of nociception and morphine analgesia after repeated coadministration of NMDA receptor antagonists. Furthermore, the underlying mechanisms are likely to be different from those mediating the sex difference in the modulation of acute morphine analgesia that has previously been reported.     

Modulation of naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal syndromes in rats by neuropeptide FF analogs

Neuropeptide FF (NPFF) has been reported to be an endogenous anti-opioid peptide that has significant effects on morphine tolerance and dependence. In the present study, we examined the chronic effects of NPFF and its synthetic analogs: the putative agonist, PFRFamide, and the putative antagonists, dansyl-PQRamide and PFR(Tic)amide on naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal syndromes in rats. After a 5-day co-administration with morphine [5 mg/kg, intraperitoneally (i.p.), twice per day (b.i.d.)] and the tested peptide [intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) or i.p., b.i.d.], naloxone (4 mg/kg, i.p.) was given systemically to evaluate the severity of the morphine withdrawal syndromes. Our results revealed that NPFF significantly potentiated the overall morphine withdrawal syndromes and, on the contrary, dansyl-PQRamide attenuated these syndromes. These results clearly indicate that modulation of the NPFF system in the mammalian central nervous system has significant effects on opiate dependence. In addition, morphine withdrawal syndromes could be practically applied as a valid parameter to functionally characterize the putative NPFF agonists and antagonists.     

Pain—Mechanisms and Management

In the past two decades there has been remarkable progress in understanding the neural mechanisms of pain. However, chronic pain is poorly understood and, by definition, poorly managed. In addition to hyperactivity of the sympathetic nervous system and damage to normal inhibitory mechanisms, social and psychological factors play a major role in producing the disability of chronic pain. New approaches to manage chronic pain include nonopiate drugs, transcutaneous electral nerve stimulation and psychological and behavioral methods. A nervous system network has recently been described that suppresses pain. This analgesic action is mediated by endogenous opioid peptides (endorphins) and by biogenic amines. The analgesia network can be activated either by electral stimulation or by opiates such as morphine or methadone.     

Isobolographic analysis of the opioid-opioid interactions in a tonic and a phasic mouse model of induced nociceptive pain

Background

Opioids have been used for the management of pain and coadministration of two opioids may induce synergism. In a model of tonic pain, the acetic acid writhing test and in a phasic model, the hot plate, the antinociceptive interaction between fentanyl, methadone, morphine, and tramadol was evaluated.

Results

The potency of opioids in the writhing test compared to the hot plate assay was from 2.5 (fentanyl) to 15.5 (morphine) times, respectively. The ED₅₀ was used in a fixed ratio for each of the six pairs of opioid combinations, which, resulted in a synergistic antinociception except for methadone/tramadol and fentanyl/tramadol which were additive, in the hot plate. The opioid antagonists naltrexone, naltrindole and nor-binaltorphimine, suggests that the synergism of morphine combinations are due to the activation of MOR subtypes with partially contribution of DOR and KOR, however fentanyl and methadone combinations are partially due to the activation of MOR and DOR subtypes and KOR lack of participation. The antinociceptive effects of tramadol combinations, are partially due to the activation of MOR, DOR and KOR opioid subtypes.

Conclusion

These results suggets that effectiveness and magnitude of the interactions between opioids are dependent on pain stimulus intensity.     

Dopamine Affects the Change of Pain-Related Electrical Activity Induced by Morphine Dependence

Morphine is among the most effective analgesics. However, many evidences suggest that, besides the well-know analgesic activity, repeated opioids treatment can induce some side effects such as dependence, hyperalgesia and tolerance. The mechanism of noxious information transmission in the central nervous system after dependence is not clear. An important neurotransmitter, dopamine (DA) participates not only in the process of opioid dependence but also in pain modulation in the central nervous system. In the present study we observed changes of electrical activities of pain-excitation neurons (PENs) and pain-inhibition neurons (PINs) in the caudate nucleus (Cd) following the development of morphine dependence. We also observed the role of DA on these changes. Our results revealed that both the latency of PEN discharges and the inhibitory duration of PIN discharges decreased, and the net increased values of PEN and PIN discharges increased in the Cd of morphine dependent rats. Those demonstrated that electrical activities of both PENs and PINs increased in morphine dependent rats. DA inhibited the electrical activities of PENs and enhanced those of PINs in morphine dependent rats.     

Effect of myelopeptides on physiological and pathological pain

The action of bone marrow low-molecular peptides (myelopeptides) was studied in the models of physiologic and pathologic pain. Myelopeptides were demonstrated to have a pronounced analgetic effect: they increased the latent period of the rats' response in the hot plate test (physiologic pain) and suppressed severe spinal pain syndrome induced by the generator of pathologically enhanced excitation in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord (pathologic pain). In the experiments with naloxone (an opiate receptor blocker) the data on the opiate properties of myelopeptides were further substantiated. The analgetic effect of myelopeptides can be compared to that of morphine and promedol. Myelopeptides even in considerable doses did not have the side effects characteristic of the majority of opiate analgesics. Therefore, they may be recommended for clinical trials.     

Analysis of the influence of anxiolytics on the pain reactions of rats compared to the effect of morphine

Anxiolytic agents, buspirone and diazepam, increase the paw lick latency of rats in hot plate test, the effect being dose-dependent and exceeding that of morphine. The action of buspirone was not accompanied by ataxic and sedative effects which were observed in rats on diazepam. Buspirone (up to 25 mg/kg) and diazepam (up to 5 mg/kg) neither change the tail flick latency nor potentiate the action of morphine in this test. The effect of buspirone on the paw lick reaction in rats may be related to the inhibition of emotional-motivation component of pain reaction.     

The effect of alpha-interferon, cyclosporine A, and radiation-induced immune suppression on morphine-induced hypothermia and tolerance

An interconnection between the immune and the central nervous systems has been suggested by investigators studying the actions of several types of immune modifying agents and procedures upon opiate related phenomena. These studies have included the effects of altering immune system function by administration of either alpha-interferon, cyclosporine or radiation exposure upon naloxone-precipitated opiate withdrawal and upon opioid antinociceptive effects. The present study extends these earlier investigations by examining the effect of immune modulation upon opiate induced hypothermia. The results demonstrate that interferon and cyclosporine have no effects on baseline temperature or morphine induced hypothermia, while irradiation exposure elicits hyperthermia without affecting morphine-induced hypothermia. Finally, neither cyclosporine nor irradiation affect the development of tolerance to morphine induced hypothermia, while a single injection of the immune system modifier interferon was able to prevent the development of such tolerance. These observations suggest that yet another opiate-related phenomenon may be regulated at least in part by the immune system. These results together with our previous findings are further evidence of a link between the immune system and the CNS mediated through the opioid system. In addition, these studies further support our earlier hypothesis that "Interferon" is one of the endogenous substances which serves to prevent the development of tolerance and dependence to endogenous opioids.     

Potassium-Induced Release of Endogenous Morphine from Rat Brain Slices

Abstract: Endogenous morphine has been clearly demonstrated by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry in the brain, spinal fluid, adrenal glands, and liver of mammals. To clarify the role of endogenous morphine, its release from rat brain slices was studied in vitro in the presence of high potassium concentrations, with and without calcium in the medium. The perfusate was hydrolyzed, solid phase-extracted, and then analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Depolarization due to high potassium concentrations increased the release of the alkaloid manyfold with respect to the basal value, and the release was dependent on the presence of calcium in the medium. These results suggest that endogenous morphine might act as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator in the rat CNS.     

In vivo trafficking of endogenous opioid receptors

Several approaches have been taken for these in vivo studies. In many studies, the use of semi-quantitative immuno-electron microscopy is the approach of choice. Endogenous opioid receptors display differential subcellular distributions with mu opioid receptor (MOPR) being mostly present on the plasma membrane and delta-opioid receptor (DOPR) and kappa-opioid receptor (KOPR) having a significant intracellular pool. Etorphine and DAMGO cause endocytosis of the MOPR, but morphine does not, except in some dendrites. Interestingly, chronic inflammatory pain and morphine treatment promote trafficking of intracellular DOPR to the cell surface which may account for the enhanced antinociceptive effects of DOPR agonists. KOPR has been reported to be associated with secretory vesicles in the posterior pituitary and translocated to the cell surface upon salt loading along with the release of vasopressin. The study of endogenous opioid receptors using in vivo models has produced some interesting results that could not have been anticipated in vitro. In vivo studies, therefore, are essential to provide insight into the mechanisms underlying opioid receptor regulation.     

Attenuation of systemic morphine-induced analgesia by central administration of ghrelin and related peptides in mice

Ghrelin, an acylated 28-amino peptide secreted in the gastric endocrine cells, has been demonstrated to stimulate the release of growth hormone, increase food intake, and inhibit pro-inflammatory cascade, etc. Ghrelin mainly combines with its receptor (GHS-R1α) to play the role in physiological and pathological functions. It has been reported that ghrelin plays important roles in the control of pain through interaction with the opioid system in inflammatory pain and acute pain. However, very few studies show the effect of supraspinal ghrelin system on antinociception induced by intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of morphine. In the present study, intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of ghrelin (0.1, 1, 10 and 100 nmol/L) produced inhibition of systemic morphine (6 mg/kg, i.p.) analgesia in the tail withdrawal test. Similarly, i.c.v. injection GHRP-6 and GHRP-2 which are the agonists of GHS-R1α, also decreased analgesia effect induced by morphine injected intraperitoneally in mice. Furthermore, these anti-opioid activities of ghrelin and related peptides were not blocked by pretreatment with the GHS-R1α selective antagonist [d-Lys³]-GHRP-6 (100 nmol/L, i.c.v.). These results demonstrated that central ghrelin and related peptides could inhibit the analgesia effect induced by intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of morphine. The anti-opioid effects of ghrelin and related peptides do not interact with GHS-R1a. These findings may pave the way for a new strategy on investigating the interaction between ghrelin system and opioids on pain modulation.     

Pain threshold and morphine activity in vitamin D-deficient rats

In rats, vitamin D-deficiency increases basal pain threshold and the analgesic effect of morphine (hot plate test). Cholecalciferol (1000 I.U./Kg/day s.c.x 5 days) restores pain sensitivity in vitamin D-deficient rats and brings the analgesic effect of morphine back to normal. On the other hand, tolerance to morphine develops faster in vitamin D-deficient rats, this effect too being prevented by cholecalciferol treatment. These data suggest a role for vitamin D status in pain sensitivity and opiate activity.     

Effects of morphine on tumour growth

Endogenous opiate alkaloids, such as morphine, and their peptide counterparts have been implicated in a wide variety of pharmacological and physiological functions. In addition to their use in the treatment of pain, opioids, appears to be important in the growth regulation of normal and neoplastic tissue. This review will focus on the influence of endogenous and exogenous opioids on tumour growth, with emphasis on immunoregulatory and antiproliferative mechanisms.     

克班宁的镇痛作用部位及作用机制探讨

以探究克班宁的镇痛作用部位并初步明确其镇痛机制为目的。采用小鼠足趾注射甲醛法、热板法及腹腔注射醋酸(扭体法)所致疼痛模型,探讨克班宁的镇痛作用;以小鼠输精管经壁电刺激法,了解克班宁对吗啡受体的影响。结果发现克班宁在3.2 mg/kg时对三种疼痛模型均显示明显的抑制作用,并能明显抑制小鼠输精管经壁电刺激所引起的收缩,且该收缩不能被纳络酮所拮抗。因此,克班宁可能具有中枢样镇痛作用,但作用机制与吗啡受体无关。     

Central action of melanostatin (MIF-1) in mice

The effects of MIF-1 administered into a lateral ventricle of the brain were studied on the behaviour of mice in the open field test and hole test, apomorphine-induced stereotypy, morphine-induced catalepsy, and reactivity on thermal painful stimuli in the hot plate test. The last test was compared with a similar test with morphine administration. It was demonstrated that MIF-1 exerted a depressing effect on the behaviour of mice, increased the intensity of apomorphine-induced stereotypy and weakened chlorpromazine-induced catalepsy. Moreover, an analgesic action of MIF-1 was demonstrated which was blocked with naloxone. The results of these investigations indicated a significant central action of MIF-1 in mice and a participation of dopaminergic receptors in certain effects of MIF-1 on the behaviour of experimental animals.     

Polyamine deprivation alters formalin-induced hyperalgesia and decreases morphine efficacy

Although the exact functions of polyamines in the nervous system remain still unclear, they are thought to have a physiological role in intracellular signal processing and neurotransmission. Polyamine deprivation which consists in the reduction of both the endogenous and exogenous sources of polyamines is a promising treatment for cancer. In a previous study we have shown that this treatment provokes an analgesic effect in rats submitted to brief phasic nociceptive tests. The present study examined the effect of polyamine deprivation on pain-related behaviors and spinal c-fos expression evoked in the formalin test presumed to better reflect clinical pain, using morphine as analgesia control. Polyamine deprivation per se altered the characteristic pain-related behaviors, reducing the interphase depression of pain, without inducing changes in the spinal Fos staining. In addition this treatment prevented the antinociceptive effect of morphine both on behavioral responses and on spinal c-fos expression. In polyamine-deprived rats, despite morphine injection, nociceptive scores remained dramatically high during the intermediate and the late phases of the response and the number of Fos immunoreactive neurons remained largely higher in deeper layers than in morphine control rats. Altogether these data support a modulatory role of polyamines both on the neuronal circuitry mediating sensory information, and on mechanisms underlying morphine analgesia.     

Differential regulation of morphine antinociceptive effects by endogenous enkephalinergic system in the forebrain of mice

Background

Mice lacking the preproenkephalin (ppENK) gene are hyperalgesic and show more anxiety and aggression than wild-type (WT) mice. The marked behavioral changes in ppENK knock-out (KO) mice appeared to occur in supraspinal response to painful stimuli. However the functional role of enkephalins in the supraspinal nociceptive processing and their underlying mechanism is not clear. The aim of present study was to compare supraspinal nociceptive and morphine antinociceptive responses between WT and ppENK KO mice.

Results

The genotypes of bred KO mice were confirmed by PCR. Met-enkephalin immunoreactive neurons were labeled in the caudate-putamen, intermediated part of lateral septum, lateral globus pallidus, intermediated part of lateral septum, hypothalamus, and amygdala of WT mice. Met-enkephalin immunoreactive neurons were not found in the same brain areas in KO mice. Tail withdrawal and von Frey test results did not differ between WT and KO mice. KO mice had shorter latency to start paw licking than WT mice in the hot plate test. The maximal percent effect of morphine treatments (5 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg, i.p.) differed between WT and KO mice in hot plate test. The current source density (CSD) profiles evoked by peripheral noxious stimuli in the primary somatosenstory cortex (S1) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) were similar in WT and KO mice. After morphine injection, the amplitude of the laser-evoked sink currents was decreased in S1 while the amplitude of electrical-evoked sink currents was increased in the ACC. These differential morphine effects in S1 and ACC were enhanced in KO mice. Facilitation of synaptic currents in the ACC is mediated by GABA inhibitory interneurons in the local circuitry. Percent increases in opioid receptor binding in S1 and ACC were 5.1% and 5.8%, respectively.

Conclusion

The present results indicate that the endogenous enkephalin system is not involved in acute nociceptive transmission in the spinal cord, S1, and ACC. However, morphine preferentially suppressed supraspinal related nociceptive behavior in KO mice. This effect was reflected in the potentiated differential effects of morphine in the S1 and ACC in KO mice. This potentiation may be due to an up-regulation of opioid receptors. Thus these findings strongly suggest an antagonistic interaction between the endogenous enkephalinergic system and exogenous opioid analgesic actions in the supraspinal brain structures.     

Cannabinoid CB<Subscript>2</Subscript> Receptor-Mediated Anti-nociception in Models of Acute and Chronic Pain

The endocannabinoid system consists of cannabinoid CB₁ and CB₂ receptors, endogenous ligands and their synthesising/metabolising enzymes. Cannabinoid receptors are present at key sites involved in the relay and modulation of nociceptive information. The analgesic effects of cannabinoids have been well documented. The usefulness of nonselective cannabinoid agonists can, however, be limited by psychoactive side effects associated with activation of CB₁ receptors. Following the recent evidence for CB₂ receptors existing in the nervous system and reports of their up-regulation in chronic pain states and neurodegenerative diseases, much research is now aimed at shedding light on the role of the CB₂ receptor in human disease. Recent studies have demonstrated anti-nociceptive effects of selective CB₂ receptor agonists in animal models of pain in the absence of CNS side effects. This review focuses on the analgesic potential of CB₂ receptor agonists for inflammatory, post-operative and neuropathic pain states and discusses their possible sites and mechanisms of action. Jhaveri and Sagar joint first author.     

椎管内注射牛肾上腺髓质22肽差异性翻转吗啡耐受作用

牛肾上腺髓质22肽（bovine adrenal medulla22,BAM22）是脑啡肽原A的一种降解产物,与阿片受体和感觉神经元特异性受体（sensory neuron-specific receptor,SNSR）均有亲合力。本研究的目的是探讨BAM22对吗啡耐受的影响。连续7d对大鼠椎管内注射20μg吗啡形成吗啡耐受后,分为吗啡组、盐水组和BAM22组,第8天三组大鼠椎管内分别注射吗啡、生理盐水和BAM22,第9天三组大鼠椎管内均注射吗啡后,运用撤足反射、福尔马林实验和免疫组织化学等方法观察吗啡的作用效果。结果显示：在撤足反射实验中,BAM22组的吗啡能延长撤足反射潜伏期最大可能作用的48．5％,并持续约1h：在福尔马林实验中,BAM22组的吗啡能分别缩短福尔马林引起的第一期和第二期疼痛行为变化3．2min和24min,比盐水组分别减少45％和82％（P〈0．05,P〈0．001）;此外,在免疫组织化学实验中,BAM22组的吗啡能显著减少热刺激引起的脊髓背角c-Fos蛋白表达,其Ⅰ-Ⅱ层、Ⅲ-Ⅳ层和Ⅴ-Ⅵ层均减少约80％（P〈0．001）。本研究从整体和细胞水平表明,BAM22能翻转吗啡的耐受,这种作用在持续性疼痛模型中的表现要比急性痛中更为明显,显示BAM22对吗啡耐受的差异性调制;同时也提示感觉神经元特异性受体可能参与吗啡耐受的调制。     

Chronic administration of clomipramine inhibits morphine hot plate analgesia

Clomipramine, chronically administered in mice, for 3 days, inhibits partially but significantly morphine analgesia in the hot plate test, when used at dose of 10 mg/kg/day, i.p.; 2.5 and 5 mg/kg/day were ineffective. Neither higher doses (20 and 40 mg/kg/day) nor longer duration of pretreatment (8 and 16 days) modified the intensity of this inhibition. Reduction in morphine analgesia was obtained after a 24h delay between the last injection of clomipramine and that of morphine (30 min before testing), while clomipramine did not induce any antinociceptive effect and clomipramine and desmethylclomipramine plasma and brain levels were low or undetectable. These results provide new evidence for the interaction between clomipramine and the endogenous opiate system. A pharmacokinetic interaction between clomipramine and morphine was excluded; involvement of change in opiate and 5 HT2 receptors by chronic administration of clomipramine is discussed.